U.  a  DEPARTMevfT  OF  LABOR 


W.  B.  WILSON,  Secrelaiy 


THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK 

DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR 

AND  F  URING  RECONSTRUCTION 

STATISTICS,  PROBLEMS,  AiN'D  POLICIES  RELATING  TO 

THE  GREATER  INCLUSION  OF  NEGRO  WAGE  EARNERS 

IN  AMERICAN  INDUSTRY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


DIVISION  OF  NECRO  ECONOMICS 

GEORGE  E.  HAYNES.  Ph.  D.,  Ditectof 


SECOND  STUDY  ON  NEGRO  LABOR 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1921 


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This  book  is  due  at  the  LOUIS  R.  WILSON  LIBRARY  on  the 
last  date  stamped  under  "Date  Due."  If  not  on  hold  it  may  be 
renewed  by  bringing  it  to  the  library. 


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U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  LABOR 


W.  B.  WILSON.  Secretary 


THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK 

DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR 

\ND  DURING  RECONSTRUCTION 

STATISTICS,  PROBLEMS,  AND   POLICIES  RELATING  TO 

THE  GREATER  INCLUSION  OF  NEGRO  WAGE  EARNERS 

IN  AMERICAN  INDUSTRY  AND  AGRICULTURE 


DIVISION  OF  NEGRO  ECONOMICS 

GEORGE  E.  HAYNES.  Ph.  D..  Director 


SECOND  STUDY  ON  NEGRO  LABOR 


r 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1921 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Introduction 7 

Chapter  I.  Migration,  its  causes  and  volume 10 

II.  Creation  of  office,  Director  of  Negro  Economics 12 

III.  Early  results  of  Negro  Economics  Ser\ice 19 

JProblems  of  Negro  Labor 20 

IV.  Cooperation  within  the  department 22 

V.  Negro  labor  and  racial  relationships  at  Chicago 26 

VI.  White  and  Negro  workers  in  basic  industries 32 

VII.  Statistics  on  the  meat-packing  and  steel  industries 52 

VIII.  Negro  labor  in  the  United  States  shipyards 58 

Record-breaking  Negro  workers 62 

IX.  Report  of  work  in  Florida  and  Georgia 64 

X.  Report  of  work  in  Illinois ! 68 

XI.  Report  of  work  in  Michigan. 77 

XII.  Report  of  work  in  Mississippi 82 

XIII.  Report  of  work  in  New  Jersey 88 

XIV.  Report  of  work  in  New  York. 95 

XV.  Report  of  work  in  North  Carolina 97 

XVI.  Report  of  work  in  Ohio 105 

XVII.  Report  of  work  in  Pennsylvania 116 

XVIII.  Report  of  work  in  Virginia 119 

XIX.  Negro  women  in  industry 124 

XX.  Recommendations  on  scope  of  departmental  authority 134 

TABLES. 

Table  I.  Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  tj^pical  war 

industries 34 

II.  Average  hours  of  work  and  average  earnings 45 

III.  Opinions  of  38  employers  of  Negro  labor 50 

IV.  Meat-packing  employees 53 

V.  Meat-packing  employees  (with  graphs) 54 

VI.  Negro  employees  m  eight  principal  shipyard  districts 60 

APPENDIXES. 

Appendix  I.  "Labor  and  Victory  " 137 

II.  Constitution,  North  Carolina  State  Committee 139 

III.  Constitution,  Ohio  State  Committee , .  141 

IV.  Constitution,  Kentucky  State  Committee 143 

3 


h 

o 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


United  States  Department  of  Labor, 

Division  of  Negro  Economics, 

Washington,  D.  C,  April  1,  1920. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  of  transmittm^  herewith  a  bulletin  cover- 
ing, in  brief,  some  of  the  work  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics, 
established  by  you  on  May  1,1918,  and  functioning  through  your  imme- 
diate office  smce  that  time,  together  with  some  valuable  data  giving 
the  actual  experiences  of  Negroes  in  industrial  occupations,  1918- 
1919.  The  publication  was  planned,  m  part,  by  my  assistant,  Karl 
F,  Phillips,  who  also  constructed  the  statistical  and  other  tables 
contained  m  the  report  and  who  from  the  beginnmg  and  throughout 
the  continuation  of  the  work  has  given  a  most  competent  and  highly 
efficient  service  to  the  department  and  to  the  public. 

You  will  note  that  the  bulletin  contains  summarized  statements  of 
the  policies  and  plans  which  you  approved  for  this  special  service  to 
Negro  wage  earners,  their  employers,  and  associates,  and  that  concise 
statistical  reports  and  data  have  been  included.  The  graphs  amplify- 
ing one  of  the  larger  tables  were  prepared  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics.  I  may  say  that  the  files  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Eco- 
nomics contam  a  mass  of  similar  material,  but  that  owing  to  lack  of 
funds  and  clerical  help  it  was  not  practicable  to  endeavor  to  prepare 
any  more  material  than  that  which  appears  in  the  report. 

In  transmitting  this  bulletin  I  desire  to  thank  the  public-spirited 
citizens,  white  and  colored,  in  organizations  and  as  individuals,  who 
gave  prompt  and  voluntary  assistance  of  untold  value  m  promoting 
the  work  throughout  the  States  and  localities  in  which  it  was  conduct- 
ed. I  desire  to  thank,  also,  the  Federal,  State,  and  private  agencies 
for  their  unlimited  cooperation  and  advice  at  all  times.  Withm  the 
department  itself  I  am  grateful  to  you,  to  the  chiefs  and  heads  of  the 
various  divisions  and  bureaus,  and  especially  to  the  office  of  the 
Assistant  Secretary  and  of  the  Solicitor  for  unfailing  interest  and 
assistance. 

The  office  and  field  staff  of  the  division  deserves  special  commenda- 
tion for  untiring  zeal  and  close  application  in  carrying  forward  the 
many  delicate  and  difficult  tasks  growling  out  of  the  work  almost  daily. 

I  desire  agam  to  call  your  attention  to  the  recommendations  cited 
on  pages  134-136  of  thia  bulletin,  which,  you  will  recall,  were  mcluded 
in  my  memorandum  report  to  you  on  the  racial  situation  in  Chicago. 
Respectfully, 

George  E.  Haynes, 
Director  of  Negro  Econontiics. 

Hon.  W.  B.  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Labor. 

5 


THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR  AND 
DURING  RECONSTRUCTION. 


mXRODUCTION. 


The  entrance  of  Negroes  into  industries,  particularly  in  the  North 
during  the  great  war  led  to  niany  questions:  What  particular  indus- 
tries did  they  enter  ?  In  what  kinds  of  occupations  were  they  most 
generally  employed?  Were  they  unskilled,  semiskilled,  or  skilled? 
How  did  they  measure  up  to  the  average  number  of  working  hours 
and  average  earnings  as  compared  with  the  white  workmen?  What 
was  the  estimate  and  opinion  of  employers  who  tried  them?  How 
did  they  compare  with  white  workmen  in  the  same  establishments 
and  on  the  same  jobs  as  to  absenteeism,  turn-over,  quality  of  work 
produced,  and  speed  in  turning  out  quantity  ? 

Some  of  the  chapters  of  this  bulletin  bring  together  the  best 
available  data  in  an  attempt  to  answer  some  of  these  questions  with 
the  facts.  Obviously,  the  data  is  very  limited  in  scope  and  neces- 
sarily fragmentary.  It  would,  therefore,  be  unwise  and  unscientific 
to  make  any  large  generalizations  based  upon  so  limited  an  amount  of 
data.  What  is  presented,  however,  has  been  carefully  gathered  and 
collated,  and,  therefore,  gives  some  definite  indications  and  informa- 
tion where  information  has  been  heretofore  very  limited.  Whatever 
analysis  and  comment  have  been  made  upon  the  tables  and  figures 
may  be  readily  weighed  in  the  light  of  the  accompanying  data  them- 
selves. 

Facts  and  figures,  however,  are  only  bases  of  information  upon 
which  to  build  programs  and  plans  of  action.  Negro  workers  are 
employed  for  the  most  part  by  white  employers  and  work  in  the 
same  industries  and  often  on  the  same  jobs  with  white  workers. 
Their  relations  with  these  emplayers  and  other  workers  frequently 
assume  racial  as  well  as  labor  aspects.  In  such  adjustments  as  were 
required  during  the  war,  when  industries  were  calling  as  never  before 
for  all  kinds  of  workers,  activities  which  proved  successful  and 
valuable  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  these  wage-earners  and  in  im- 
proving their  relations  to  employers  and  other  workers  were  exceed- 
ingly important  parts  of  the  machinery  of  organized  production. 

The  plans  and  activities  of  the  Department  of  Labor  for  dealing 
with  these  matters  are  experiences  of  permanent  and  instructive 
value,  especially  because  of  the  hearty  and  successful  response  re- 
ceived from  white  and  Negro  citizens  in  many  States  and  localities. 
A  part  of  this  bulletin,  therefore,  gives  a  summary  of  these  plans  and 
activities  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  in  the  office  of  the 
Secretary  of  Labor.     The  account  shows  the  general  program,  the 


8  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

facts  and  principles  upon  which  it  was  based,  and  how  it  was  carried 
out  in  the  several  States  with  the  hearty  indorsement  and  coopera- 
tion of  governors  and  other  State  and  local  officials  and  of  white  and- 
colored  citizens,  both  in  organizations  and  as  individuals. 

The  first  table  of  figures  of  Chapter  VI  gives  clear  indications  of 
the  distribution  in  26  States  of  129,708  white  men  and  62,340  Negro 
men  in  unskilled  occupations  of  292  different  firms  engaged  in  various 
war  industries  in  1918.  Table  II  of  the  same  chapter  gives  full  details 
of  the  classification  of  occupations  as  skilled,  semiskilled,  and  un- 
skilled, the  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week,  and  the 
average  earnings  per  week  and  per  hour  of  4,260  white  men  and 
2,722  Negro  men  m  194  occupations  in  23  separate  establishments 
engaged  m  basic  industrial  operations  of  foundries  (both  iron  and 
steel),  slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  automobile  manufacture, 
coke  ovens,  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  and  their  products,  and 
in  glass  manufacture.  This  table  is  accompanied  by  some  comment, 
analyzing  the  comparison  of  white  and  Negro  workmen  on  the  points 
covered  m  each  of  the  three  general  occupational  classes.  A  sup- 
plementary part  of  this  table  gives  similar  figures  for  153  white  women 
and  83  Negro  women  in  slaughtering  and  meat  packing.  Table  III 
of  this  chapter  gives  in  tabular  form  the  opinions  of  38  employers  of 
Negro  workers  as  to  the  attitude  of  their  firms  toward  Negro  labor, 
the  opportunities  for  promotion,  and  their  opinion  on  the  compara- 
tive behavior  of  white  and  Negro  employees.  The  38  firms  repre- 
sented were  employing  at  that  time  108,215  white  workers  and  6,757 
Negro  workers.  These  opinions,  therefore,  are  fairly  representative 
of  the  state  of  mind  of  northern  emploj^ers  in  1918-19. 

Slaughtering  and  meat  packing  and  iron  and  steel  were  such  im- 
portant industries  and  employed  such  large  numbers  of  Negroes 
during  the  war  that  special  reports  were  secured  througli  courtesy 
of  plants  carrving  on  these  two  industries.  Chapter  \n;i  gives  in 
considerable  detail  the  tables  and  analyses  of  white  and  Negro 
workers  for  the  first  of  these  industries  and  adds  additional  dis- 
cussion to  that  of  Chapter  VI  on  the  iron  and  steel  establishments. 

Tables  IV  and  V  of  this  chapter  give  the  number  and  per  cent  of 
distribution  of  the  white  and  Negro  employees,  male  and  female,  of 
two  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  plants  for  30  weeks  beginning 
July  13,  1918,  and  159  weeks  beginning  January,  1916,  respectively. 
On  the  basis  of  these  tables  two  diagrams  have  been  made  and  are 
included  in  the  chapter,  making  these  figures  of  the  total  numbers 
and  percentages  readily  perceptible  to  the  casual  reader.  There  was 
no  more  important  nor  interesting  work  than  that  in  the  shipyards 
during  the  war.  "Ships,  ships,  and  more  ships"  was  the  call  from 
Europe.  It  has  not  been  feasible  to  get  all  the  figures  for  aU  the 
shipyards  where  Negroes  were  employed  during  the  war,  but  a  full 
record  of  the  Negi-o  employees  at  shipbuilding  plants  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration, were  secured  through  courtesy  of  that  board.  This  activity 
of  Negro  wage-earners  assumed  such  important  proportions  that  the 
material  justifies  a  separate  chapter — Chapter  VIII.  Table  VI  of 
this  chapter  gives  these  figures  for  occupations  of  24,648  Negro  men 
during  tne  war  and  14,075  after  the  war  and  imtil  September,  1919. 
They  are  classified  both  as  a  whole  into  skilled  and  Unskilled  and  by 
epecific  occupations  for  each  of  the  eight  shipyard  districts  under  the 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  9 

Emergency  Fleet  Corporation.     Some  analysis  of  the  figures  given 
in  this  chapter  indicates  their  significance. 

Unfortmiately  this  study  of  Negro  wage-earners  does  not  include 
data  of  their  labor  on  the  railroads,  in  the  mines,  in  agriculture,  and 
in  domestic  service,  except  as  some  of  these  are  included  in  some  of 
the  figures  given  in  the  several  tables  below,  and  in  the  State  reports 
of  activities  of  the  State  supervisors  of  Ne^ro  Economics,  notably 
in  Chapter  XVI  on  Ohio,  in  Chapter  X  on  Illmois,  in  Chapter  XII  on 
Mississippi,  and  in  Chapter  XV  on  North  Carolina. 

The  original  plan  for  this  bulletin  contemplated  the  inclusion  of 
these  groups.  The  activities  of  the  department  embraced  measures 
to  promote  their  welfare,  their  efficiency,  and  to  improve  their  rela- 
tions and  opportunities.  During  this  study  efforts  were  made  with- 
out satisfactory  results  to  get  comprehensive  figures  and  facts  from 
the  United  States  Railroad  Administration  on  this  subject  because  their 
figures  were  not  compiled  separately.  Figures  for  the  other  groups 
also  could  not  be  obtained  from  any  available  sources.  There  were 
not  funds  at  hand  for  the  Department  of  Labor  to  study  these  occu- 
pational groups  with  a  staff  of  its  own.  It  was  deemed  best,  therefore, 
to  await  further  provision  for  such  study  rather  than  attempt  to 
include  uncertain  statements  and  insuflficient  and  inexact  data.  The 
experience  of  the  department  in  touching  these  fields  demonstrates 
their  importance  and  justifies  this  postponement  until  they  can  be 
properly  studied. 

Special  note  should  be  made  of  the  sincere  and  effective  cooperation 
of  Mr.  Ethelbert  Stewart,  Director  of  the  Investigation  and  Inspection 
Service,  whose  staff  workers  were  directed  so  effectively  in  the  col- 
lection of  a  considerable  amount  of  the  statistical  data  included  in 
several  of  the  chapters. 

The  Women's  Bureau  (formerly  the  Woman  in  Industry  Service), 
first  under  Miss  Mary  Van  Kleeck  as  director  and  now  under  Miss 
Mary  Anderson  as  director,  has  given  effective  attention  to  the  ques- 
tions affecting  Negro  women  workers  in  industry  and  their  relations 
to  white  women  workers.  During  the  war  Mrs.  Helen  B.  Irvin,  as 
special  agent  of  the  Woman  in  Industry  Service,  assisted  a  part  of  the 
time  by  Mrs.  Elizabeth  R.  Haynes  as  a  doUar-a-year  worker,  made 
visits  and  inspections  of  a  number  of  establishments  that  were  em- 
ploying Negro  women.  A  summary  of  Mrs.  Irvin's  reports  about 
firms  employing  approximately  21,547  Ne^o  women  and  girls  is 
given  in  Chapter  XIX.  This  discussion  gives  the  general  kind  of 
industrial  and  other  work  in  which  these  women  were  employed, 
indicates  some  of  the  problems  arising  out  of  their  entrance  in  large 
number*  into  such  work,  and  describes  some  of  the  typical  condi- 
tions under  which  they  labored. 

The  records  of  the  activities  of  the  State  supervisors  of  Negro 
Economics  speak  for  themselves  in  Chapters  IX  to  XVTII.  The 
men  in  the  field  who  followed  the  series  of  conferences  and  supervised 
on  the  ground  the  formation  of  State  and  local  Negro  worKers'  ad-  * 
visory  committees  in  the  coimties,  towns,  and  cities  of  11  States, 
with  the  necessary  local  routine  to  make  effective  the  cooperation  of 
white  and  colored  citizens  in  meeting  their  many  difficult  and  deh- 
cate  racial  labor  problems,  deserve  high  commendation  as  volunteer 
officers  in  the  third  fine  of  defense  in  industry  and  agriculture  which 
labored  to  make  the  world  safe  for  democracy. 


CHAPTER  I. 
MIGRATION. 

Shortage  of  labor  in  northern  industries  was  the  direct  cause  of 
the  increased  Negro  migration  during  the  war  period.  This  direct 
cause  was,  of  course,  augmented  by  other  causes,  among  which  were 
the  increased  dissatisfaction  •v^'ith  conditions  in  the  South — the 
ravages  of  the  boll  weevil,  floods,  change  of  crop  system,  low  wages, 
and  poor  houses  and  schools. 

A  previous  bulletin  of  the  department  summed  up  the  causes  as 
follows: 

Other  causes  assigned  at  the  southern  end  are  numerous:  General  dissatisfaction 
with  conditions,  ravages  of  boll  weevil,  floods,  change  of  crop  system,  low  wages, 
poor  houses  on  plantations,  poor  school  facilities,  unsatisfactory  crop  settlements, 
rough  treatment,  lynching,  desire  for  travel,  labor  agents,  the  Negro  press,  letters  from 
friends  in  the  North,  and  finally  advice  of  white  friends  in  the  South  where  crops  had 
failed. 

The  Department  of  Labor  estimates  the  Negro  migration  in  figures 
of  from  400,000  to  500,000.  Other  estimates,  ranging  from  300,000  to 
800,000,  have  been  made  by  individual  experts  and  by  private  bureaus. 
Such  a  variation  of  figures  goes  to  show  the  wide  scope  of  the  migi-ation. 
Prior  to  the  war  period  the  Negro  worker  had  been  sparsely  located  in 
the  North,  but  the  laws  of  self-preservation  of  the  industrial  and  agri- 
cultural assets  of  our  coimtry  and  the  law  of  demand  and  supply  turned 
almost  overnight  both  into  war  and  private  industries  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  Negro  workers,  among  whom  there  were  laborers,  mold- 
ers,  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  painters,  janitors,  chauffeurs,  machinist 
laborers,  and  a  mass  of  other  workers,  comprising,  probably,  nearly 
every  type  of  skilled,  semiskilled,  and  imskilled  labor. 

The  most  marked  effects  of  the  migration  were  easily  determinable. 
First,  the  agricultural  regions  of  the  Southern  States,  particularly 
Mississippi  and  Louisiana,  began  to  suffer  for  want  of  the  Negro 
worker  who  had  so  long  tilled  the  soil  of  those  regions.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  Negro  workers  who  had  been  turned  into  the  plants  of  the 
North  faced  the  necessity  of  performing  efficient  work  in  the  mini- 
mum amount  of  time,  of  adjusting  themselves  to  northern  condi- 
tions and  of  becoming  fixtures  in  their  particular  line  of  employ- 
ment, or  becoming  "floaters." 

It  is  interesting  to  review  for  a  moment  some  of  the  wage  scales 
in  Southern  States.  In  1917  about  $12  a  month  was  being  paid  for 
farm  labor  m  many  sections.  In  other  sections  75  cents  and  $1  a 
day  were  considered  equitable  wages.  During  the  harvesting  of 
rice  in  the  "grinding  season"  the  amoimt  was  usually  increased  to 
$1.25  and  $1.75  per  day,  with  a  possible  average  of  $1.50.  Cotton 
was  always  considered  a  cheap-labor  crop,  about  which  one  man  has 
said: 

The  world  has  gone  on  thinking  that  the  farm  labor  in  the  South  should  work  for 
75  cents  or  $1  a  day  when  all  other  labor  is  getting  $1.50  and  $2  per  day. 

10 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  11 

The  States  which  contributed  most  largely  to  the  masses  of  mi- 
grants were  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  and  Temiessee.  The  m.i- 
grants  from  those  States  rapidly  supplemented  the  Negro  workers 
already  sparsely  employed  in  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Michigan, 
Illinois,  and  West  Virginia.^ 


1  See  Negro  Migration  in  1916-17,  Department  of  Labor  bulletin.    Government  Printing  Office.    1919. 


CHAPTER  TT. 

CREATION  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  DIRECTOR  OF  NEGRO 
ECONOMICS. 

In  view  of  the  perplexing  questions  \^dth  regard  to  Negroes  in  in- 
dustry and  agriculture  and  the  migration  of  Negroes  from  the  South 
to  the  North  during  1916,  1917,  and  1918,  upon  representations  of 
white  and  Negro  citizens  and  several  influential  organizations  dealing 
particularly  with  Negro  life  and  race  relations,  the  Secretary  of  Lahor, 
Hon.  William  B.  Wilson,  after  consideration  and  favorable  recommen- 
dation by  his  Advisory  Council  on  the  war  organization  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor,  decided  to  create  the  position  of  adviser  on  Negro 
labor  in  his  immediate  office,  with  the  title  of  Director  of  Negro 
Economics.  The  function  of  this  official  was  to  advise  the  Secretary 
and  the  directors  and  chiefs  of  the  several  bureaus  and  divisions  of 
the  department  on  matters  relating  to  Negro  wage  earners,  and  to 
outline  and  promote  plans  for  greater  cooperation  between  Negro  wage 
earners,  white  employers,  and  white  workers  in  agriculture  and 
industry. 

In  starting  this  work  the  Secretary  stated  that  as  Negroes  con- 
stitute about  one-tenth  of  the  total  population  of  the  country  and 
about  one-seventh  of  the  working  population,  it  was  reasonable  and 
right  that  they  should  have  representation  at  the  council  table  when 
matters  affecting  them  were  being  considered  and  decided.  In  de- 
fining the  function  of  the  office  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics 
the  Secretary  decided  that  the  advice  of  the  director  should  be  secured 
before  any  work  dealing  with  Negro  wage  earners  was  undertaken  and 
that  he  be  kept  advised  of  the  progress  of  such  work  so  that  the 
Department  might  have,  at  all  times,  the  benefit  of  his  judgment  in 
all  matters  affecting  Negroes. 

Accordingly,  on  May  1,  1918,  the  Secretary  of  Labor  called  to  that 
position  Dr.  George  E.  Haynes,  professor  of  sociology  and  economics  at 
Fisk  University  and  one  of  the  secretaries  of  the  National  League  on 
LTrban  Conditions  among  Negroes.  Dr.  HajTies  was  strongly  recom- 
mended by  many  individuals  and  organizations,  among  them  being 
the  Commercial  Club  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  his  home  city. 

The  Secretary  of  Labor,  -with,  the  advice  of  the  Director  of  Ne^ra 
Economics,  early  in  May,  1918,  considered  and  approved  plans  out- 
linmg  three  types  of  activities  for  dealing  vrith.  problems  of  Negro 
workers  in  their  relations  to  white  workers  and  white  employers,  as 
follows : 

1.  The  organization  of  cooperative  committees  of  white  and  colored  citizens  in  the 
States  and  localities  where  problems  of  Negro  labor  arise,  due  to  large  numbers  of  Negro 
workers. 

2.  The  development  of  a  publicity  or  educational  campaign  to  create  good  feeling 
between  the  races  and  to  have  both  white  and  Negro  citizens  understand  and  cooperate 
with  the  purpose  and  plans  of  the  department. 

12 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WOEK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  13 

3.  The  appointment  of  Negro  staff  workers  in  the  States  and  localities  to  develop 
this  organization  of  committees,  to  conduct  this  work  of  better  racial  labor  relations, 
and  to  assist  the  several  divisions  and  services  of  the  department  in  mobilizing  and 
stabilizing  Negro  labor  for  winning  the  war. 

In  undertaking  to  carry  out  the  three  parts  of  this  plan,  the  office 
of  the  Secretary  recognized  two  main  difficulties : 

1.  The  difficulty  of  forestalling  a  strong  feeling  of  suspicion  on  the  part  of  the  colored 
people,  growing  out  of  their  past  experiences  in  racial  and  labor  matters. 

2.  The  difficulty  of  forestalling  a  wrong  impression  among  white  people,  especially 
those  in  the  South,  about  the  efforts  of  the  department,  and  of  having  them  understand 
that  the  department  wishes  to  help  them  in  local  labor  problems  by  means  of  its  plans. 

Tliese  cardinal  facts  were  also  given  due  consideration: 

1.  The  two  races  are  thrown  together  in  their  daily  work,  the  majority  of  the  em- 
ployers and  a  large  number  of  the  employees  having  relations  with  Negro  employees 
being  white  persons.  These  conditions  give  rise  to  misunderstandings,  prejudices, 
antagonisms,  fears,  and  suspicions.  These  facts  must  be  recognized  and  dealt  with  in 
a  statesmanlike  manner. 

2.  The  problems  are  local  in  character,  arising,  as  they  do,  between  local  employers 
and  local  employees.  The  people,  however,  in  local  communities,  need  the  vision  of 
national  policies,  plans,  and  standards  to  apply  to  their  local  situations. 

3.  Any  plan  or  program  should  be  based  upon  the  desire  and  need  of  cooperation 
between  white  employers  and  representatives  of  Negro  wage  earners,  and,  wherever 
possible,  white  wage  earners. 

FIELD  ORGANIZATION— CONFERENCES  AND  COMMITTEES. 

The  first  step  in  setting  up  the  field  organization  was  a  preliminary 
trip  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  to  strategic  centers  in  a 
number  of  States  where  Negro  workers'  problems  were  of  pressing 
importance.  Through  preliminary  correspondence,  informal  con- 
ferences and  interviews  were  held  with  representative  white  and 
Negro  citizens  from  different  parts  of  each  State  visited.  These 
interviews  and  conferences  established  the  first  points  of  sympathetic 
contact  for  cooperation  in  subsequent  efforts  to  improve  labor  condi- 
tions and  race  relations. 

These  preliminary  visits  laid  the  foundation  for  subsequent  work. 
For  instance,  the  North  Carolina  conference,  called  by  Hon.  T.  W. 
Bickett,  Governor  of  the  State  and  described  below,  which  set  the 
model  for  other  Southern  States,  grew  out  of  such  a  preliminary 
visit.  The  creation  of  the  Negro  workers'  committees  of  Virginia 
and  the  cooperation  of  the  Negro  Organization  Society  of  that  State 
grew  out  of  a  similar  visit  on  the  trip.  Similar  results  followed  the 
connections  made  in  other  States. 

Upon  the  visit  to  a  State,  officials  of  State  and  private  schools  for 
Negroes,  of  the  State  councils  of  defense,  representatives  of  the 
chambers  of  commerce,  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service, 
and  of  white  and  Negro  colleges  promised  cooperation  and  assistance 
in  the  efforts  of  the  department  to  stimulate  Negro  wage  earners  by 
improving  their  condition  m  such  a  way  as  to  increase  their  efficiency 
for  maximum  production  to  win  the  war. 

L  The  first  of  a  series  of  State  conferences  of  representative  white  and 
Negro  citizens  was  called  on  June  19,  1918,  by  Hon.  T.  W.  Bickett, 
Governor  of  North  Carolina,  at  his  office  in  the  State  capitol  at 
Raleigh.  There  were  present  at  this  conference  17  of  the  most  sub- 
stantial Negroes  from  all  parts  of  the  State  and  five  white  citizens, 


14  THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

including  the  governor,  who  presided  throughout  the  conference  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  proceedings.  .^ 

The  plans  of  the  Department  of  Labor  for  increasing  the  morale 
and  efficiency  of  Negro  workers  were  outlined  by  the  Director  of 
Negro  Economics  and  freely  discussed.  At  the  close  of  the  meeting 
the  governor  appointed  a  temporary'  committee  which  drafted  a 
constitution  providing  for  a  State  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Com- 
mittee and  for  the  organization  of  local  county  and  city  committees. 
This  plan  of  organization,  with  slight  modifications  and  readjust- 
ments, later  served  as  a  model  for  other  States  in  the  development  of 
a  voluntary  field  organization  which  was  set  up  in  the  course  of  the 
next  six  months  in  fom*  other  southern  States,  and  six  northern 
States.  Gov.  Bickett  was  so  highly  pleased  with  the  result  of  the 
conference  that  he  issued  a  statement  to  the  public  press  saying  that 
this  meeting  was  one  of  the  most  patriotic  and  helpful  conferences  he 
had  ever  attended. 

A  State  meeting  of  white  and  colored  citizens  was  held  by  the 
Southern  Sociological  Congress  at  Gulf  port,  Miss.,  July  12,  1918. 
The  congress  extended  an  invitation  to  the  Director  of  Negro  Eco- 
nomics to  address  the  meeting.  About  200  white  citizens,  business 
men  and  planters,  and  about  75  Negro  citizens  of  the  State  were  in 
attendance^  The  department  took  advantage  of  this  State  gathering  to 
call  together  those  who  were  especially  interested  in  the  adjustment  of 
Negro  labor  problems.  The  address  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Eco- 
,  nomics  before  the  congress  received  a  hearty  response  from  both 
whites  and  Negroes  present,  and  as  a  result  several  of  the  white  citi- 
zens took  an  active  part  in  the  conference,  which  worked  out  a  plan 
of  State-wide  organization  similar  to  the  one  adopted  by  North 
Carolina. 
v-^  On  the  basis  of  the  precedent  set  by  Gov.  Bickett  and  the  success 
at  the  Gulf  port  meeting  of  the  Southern  Sociological  Congress,  Hon. 
Sidney  Catts,  Governor  of  Florida,  called  a  conference  of  white  and 
Negro  citizens  at  Jacksonville,  on  July  16, 1918.  After  full  discussion 
of  plans  and  procedure  this  conference  adopted  a  program  and  formed 
a  State  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  composed  of  representa- 
tive white  and  colored  citizens  under  the  auspices  of  the  State  Council 
of  National  Defense  and  the  United  States  Employment  Service.  •■  A 
program  of  activities  was  worked  out,  having  as  its  object  the  "pro- 
motion of  better  conditions  and  a  better  understanding  of  employ- 
ment matters  relating  to  the  Negroes  of  Florida  in  order  that  greater 
production  of  food  and  war  supplies  might  be  the  result.  So  great 
was  the  enthusiasm  on  the  day  of  the  conference  that  the  citizens  of 
Jacksonville,  white  and  colored,  held  a  monster  mass  meeting,  at 
which  the  governor,  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics,  and  other 
officials  spoke. 

In  the  meantime,  through  the  help  of  the  Negro  Organization 
Society  of  Virginia,  the  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of  that 
State  was  organized  and  the  first  supervisor  of  Negro  economics,  a 
Negro  citizen  of  training  and  experience,  T.  C.  Erwin,  was  appointed 
and  undertook  the  direction  of  advisory  work  in  the  State. 

The  next  step  was  to  get  the  work  and  organization  launched  in 
northern  territory.  Ohio  was  selected  for  the  initial  effort,  and  on 
August  5,  1918,  a  conference  was  called  by  the  department  with  the 
hearty  help  of  the  Federal  Director  of  the  United  States  Employment 


\ 

THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  15 

Service  and  Hon.  James  M.  Cox,  governor  of  Ohio.  This  conference 
met  at  the  State  Capitol  at  Columbus  and  was  notable  for  the  num- 
ber in  attendance,  and  the  enthusiasm  and  readiness  with  which  they 
worked  out  a  plan  of  State-wide  organization.  There  were  present 
about  125  persons — white  employers,  Negro  wage  earners,  and  rep- 
resentatives of  white  wage  earners.  The  afternoon  session  was  closed 
with  a  splendid  address  by  the  governor.  The  conference  adopted 
the  usual  plan  of  State  organization  and  Charles  E.  Hall,  the  second 
supervisor  of  Negro  economics,  was  assigned  to  the  State  to  develop 
the  organization  and  to  supervise  the  work,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  United  States  Employment  Service  office. 

C  One  other  conference,  that  held  in  Louisville,  Ky.,  August  6,  1918, 
needs  to  be  described  as  showing  one  other  slight  variation  in  the 
far-reaching  significance  of  the  cooperative  plan  of  organization. 
This  conference  was  unique  in  that  the  plan  of  organization  adopted 
was  that  of  a  united  war-work  committee  made  up  jointly  by  those 
representing  the  State  Council  of  Defense,  United  States  Food  Ad- 
ministration, United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the 
United  States  Department  of  Labor,  white  and  colored  citizens  being 
the  persons  representing  these  various  interests.  The  conference 
was  noted  for  its  enthusiasm.  Hon.  A.  O.  Stanley,  governor  of  Ken- 
tucky, made  an  enthusiastic  address  to  the  conference  and  a  large 
mass  meeting  followed  in  the  evening. 

By  the  time  of  the  Kentucky  conference,  three  months  after  the  first 
plans  were  outlined,  the  influence  of  the  State  conferences  and  their 
feasibility  were  so  well  proved  as  a  means  of  starting  a  State  move- 
ment and  creating  good  will  and  favorable  sentiment  that  other  con- 
ferences followed  as  a  matter  of  course  in  setting  up  the  State  work. 
Additional  conferences  in  1918  were  held  in  Georgia,  Missouri,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  and  New  Jersey. 

A  national  informal  conference  was  called  by  the  Secretary  of 
Labor  and  met  in  Washington,  D.  C,  February  17-18,  1919.  This 
conference  included  men  and  women  representing  welfare  and  social 
service  organizations,  both  North  and  South,  of  both  Negroes  and 
white  people,  in  order  that  the  views  and  interests  of  all  sections 
and  of  both  races  might  be  ascertained,'  The  kejmote  of  the  confer- 
ence was  sounded  by  the  Secretary  of  Labor  in  welcoming  the  repre- 
sentatives.   He  said: 

Congress  in  defining  the  duties  of  the  Department  of  Labor  made  no  distinction 
either  as  to  sex  or  race,  and,  I  may  add,  as  to  previous  condition  of  servitude.  We 
were  authorized  to  promote  the  welfare  of  wage  earners,  whether  men  or  women  or 
children,  whether  they  were  white  or  colored,  whether  they  were  native  born  or  aUen 
residents;  and  in  the  undertaking  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  wage  workers  we  have 
not  assumed  that  it  was  our  duty  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  wageworker  at  the 
expense  of  the  plans  of  the  commimity  but  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the  wageworker, 
ha\dng  due  respect  to  the  rights  of  all  other  portions  of  oiu*  population. 

The  Assistant  Secretary  of  Labor,  Louis  F.  Post,  in  addressing  the 
conference  said: 

It  is  the  function  of  the  Department  of  Labor  to  look  after  the  interests  of  all  wage 
earners  of  any  race,  any  age,  or  either  sex. 

Special  subjects  were  discussed,  as  follows: 

Lines  of  work  which  should  be  undertaken  for  improving  race  relations  and  con- 
ditions of  Negro  workers. 


16  THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

Conduct  and  toleration  as  necessary  for  cooperation  and  good  will  between  Negro 

and  white  workers. 
Special  problems  of  women  in  industry'. 

The  Ne^o  land  tenants  and  farm  laborers  and  what  agencies  may  do  to  help  them. 
Education  and  Negro  workers. 

On  the  second  day  the  informal  conference  gave  most  of  its  time 
to  the  general  topic:  "Unity  of  action  in  local  commmiities  to  secm"e 
efficiency  and  cooperation  of  welfare  agencies  and  methods,  by 
which  the  Department  of  Labor  and  other  governmental  agencies 
can  best  cooperate  with  private  agencies  and  organizations." 

In  a  set  of  resolutions  adopted  and  recommended  to  the  Secretary 
of  Labor  the  following  important  points  are  set  forth : 

RESOLUTION  ON  PLAN  OF  COOPERATIVE  ORGANIZATION  ADOPTED  AT  INFORMAL  CON- 
FERENCE ON  NEGRO  LABOR  PROBLEMS,  FEBRUARY  17  AND  18.  1919,  AS  APPROVED 
BY  THE  SECRETARY  OF  LABOR. 

Whereas  the  improvement  of  conditions  of  Negro  wage  earners  and  the  improvement 

of  relations  of  white  employers,  of  white  wage  earners  and  of  Negro  wage  earners  are 

(juestions  of  great  importance  for  the  advancement  of  the  welfare  of  all  wage  earners 

in  America;  and 
Whereas  the  several  organizations  and  agencies  specifically  interested  in  promoting 

the  better  adjustment  of  Negro  wage  earners  to  American  life  need  to  work  in  closer 

cooperation : 

Therefore,  It  behooves  representatives  of  such  boards,  agencies  and  organizations 
interested  in  such  questions  to  adopt  measures  of  cooperative  organization,  of  action, 
and  of  policy  that  will  foster  constructive  work  along  these  lines. 

We,  therefore,  the  representatives  of  such  organizations,  inA^ted  to  an  informal  con- 
ference in  Washington  by  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  do  hereby  recommend  and  ask  the 
Secretary  to  use  his  good  offices  in  laying  before  the  organizations  represented,  and 
any  other  organizations  that  may  be  interested,  a  plan  of  cooperative  organization  and 
effort  on  the  following  general  lines: 

1.  That  local  efforts  to  influence  employers  of  Negro  workers  to  provide  welfare 
facilities  be  undertaken,  jointly,  by  all  the  agencies  attempting  to  do  such  work  in  a 
community;  and  that  the  local  representatives  of  the  Department  of  Labor  be  used  as 
far  as  practicable  as  a  channel  through  which  the  experiences  and  methods  of  the  sev- 
eral agencies  shall  seek  exchange  in  these  local  efforts. 

Where  there  is  no  such  local  governmental  organization  or  representative  of  the 
Department  of  Labor,  and  several  agencies  desire  to  act,  that  they  request  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  to  assist  them  in  getting  such  a  neutral  channel  of  cooperation. 

2.  That  our  several  agencies,  boards  and  organizations,  which  undertake  the  organi- 
zation of  any  work  or  the  expenditure  of  any  funds  for  improving  the  living  and  neigh- 
borhood conditions  of  Negro  workers  in  local  communities  seek  to  become  informed  of 
similar  plans  of  other  agencies,  boards  and  organizations  before  deciding  on  plans  or 
taking  action. 

3.  That  the  Department  of  Labor  be  asked  to  furnish  such  information  and  to 
provide  such  facilities  as  are  necessary  for  keeping  the  agencies,  boards  and  organiza- 
tions informed  of  such  plans,  efforts,  or  proposed  undertakings  or  steps  that  have  been . 
undertaken  by  the  several  agencies,  boards  and  organizations  interested. 

4.  That  each  agency,  board  or  organization  here  represented,  or  any  other  agency, 
board  or  organization  that  may  hereafter  be  concerned  shall,  as  soon  as  practicable, 
make  available  to  the  Department  of  Labor  such  parts  of  its  records,  facilities  and 
opportunities  as  are  necessary  in  order  that  the  Department  may  have  available  the 
information  needed  for  using  its  good  offices  in  furthering  the  cooperation  of  such  agen- 
cies, boards,  or  organizations.  That  such  agencies,  boards,  or  organizations  detail  for 
service  in  this  connection  such  personnel  ser\'ices  of  its  staff  as  may  be  needed  for 
carrying  out  the  part  of  any  effort  in  which  said  agency,  board,  or  organization  may  be 
involved. 

5.  The  Department  of  Labor  is  also  asked  to  call  a  second  conference,  at  the  time 
that  seems  best,  of  representatives  of  the  organizations  that  have  been  invited  to  this 
conference;  also  representatives  of  such  other  organizations  that  may  be  interested  or 
concerned  for  futher  discussion  of  the  questions  involved  in  connection  with  Negro 
economics,  in,  order  that  further  exchange  of  experiences  and  plans  of  unity  and  co- 
operation may  be  discussed.  •  '  » 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 


17 


The  following  resolution  was  adopted  by  the  conference  as  an  addi- 
tion to  the  report  of  the  committee: 

6.  That  it  is  the  consensus  of  this  body  that  the  representatives  of  national  organi- 
zations attending  this  conference  request  their  local  representatives  in  various  States 
to  cooperate  immediately  with  the  representatives  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  in  all  matters  affecting  the  interests  of  the 
Negro  workers. 

A  program  of  national  work  was  also  adopted  and  recommended  to 
the  Secretary  covering  the  following  matters : 

1.  Survey  of  Negro  labor  conditions. 

2.  The  getting  of  Negro  workers  into  industry. 

3.  Holding  Negro  workers  in  industry,  including  the  impro\ing  of  living  and 

working  conditions  in  both  agriculture  and  industry. 

4.  Training  the  next  generation  of  workers. 

5.  The  general  advancement  of  Negro  wage  earners  in  the  United  States. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  organizations  signing,  and  the  names 
of  their  representatives : 


Name. 

Organization  or  agency  represented. 

Dr.  Jesse  E.  Moorland  (chairman) 

(Miss)  Nannie  Burroughs 

International  Committee,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
The  National  Training  School. 

(Mi^«)  Mfiry  C.  .Tanlr'^nn, . 

War  Work  Council,  Y.  W.  C.  A.  (National  Board). 

John  R.  Sh'illady 

1  National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Colored  People. 

War  Camp  Community  Service. 

National  League  on  Urban  Conditions  among  Negroes. 

Phelp-Stokes  Fund. 

National  War  Work  Council,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 

(Vice)  Walter  F.  White 

T.  S.  Settle 

F.iigpnp.  Kincklfi  Tnnps 

C.  H.  Tobias .' 

.Tohn  T,  F.mlpn, 

Armstrong  Association  of  Philadelphia. 

Dr.  Rodney  W.  Roundy 

American  Missionary  Association. 

Dr.  R.  R.  Moton 

Rev.  Harnld  M.  King<?lpy. . 

Joint  Committee,  War  Production  Committees. 

Rev.  E.  W.  Moore: ."...". 

Baptist  Home  Mission  Society. 

Circle 'for  Negro  War  Relief  (Inc.). 

Women's  Home  Mission  Council — Methodist  Publishing  Board. 

(Mrs.)  Etnah  R.  Bouttee 

(Miss)  F.stpUe  Ha.sldn 

John  J.  Kagan                 ...        

Commission  on  Training  Camp  Activities. 
Jeanes-Slater  Funds. 

Dr.  James  H.  Dillard 

In  carrying  out  the  plans  for  a  publicity  and  educational  campaign 
to  create  a  better  feeling  between  the  races  and  to  have  both  white 
and  colored  citizens  understand  and  cooperate  with  the  purposes  and 
plans  of  the  department,  the  office  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Eco- 
nomics received  the  hearty  help  and  cooperation  of  the  Information 
and  Education  Service  of  the  department  during  the  war  and  until 
that  service  was  discontinued  July  1,  1919. 

A  regular  newspaper  release  was  given  to  both  the  white  press  and 
Negro  press  which  can  not  be  too  highly  commended  for  their  co- 
operation. Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  support  given 
by  the  Negro  newspapers  of  the  country,  more  than  250  in  number, 
who  gave  without  compensation  large  sections  of  news  columns  and 
advertising  space.  As  an  illustration,  a  news  release  on  that  part  of 
the  Secretary's  annual  report  relating  to  Negro  workers  was  sent  out 
from  the  office  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  through  the  Infor- 
mation and  Education  Service.  CHppings  from  white  newspapers 
showed  that  the  release  was  used  by  them  as  far  north  as  Maine,  as 
far  west  as  California,  and  as  far  south  as  Louisiana.  Nearly  all  the 
Negro  newspapers,  north  and  south,  carried  the  release — some  of  them 
in  full. 

1989"— 2X 2 


18  THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

Special  addresses  for  use  at  patriotic  and  lioliday  celebrations  were 
prepared  and  sent  out  to  the  Negro  workers  tiirough  the  advisory 
committees  in  the  territories  where  they  were  organized.  On  the 
Fourth  of  July,  1918,  more  than  2,000  copies  of  an  address  entitled 
"Labor  and  Victory"  were  used  in  county  and  city  patriotic  cele- 
brations in  more  than  150  counties  and  about  12  States.  (For  copy, 
see  Appendix  I.) 

Statements  were  prepared  for  Avriters  of  special  articles  in  news- 
papers and  magazines  and  for  the  Four  Minute  Bulletin  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Public  Information.  Similar  material  was  sent  to  hun- 
dreds of  speakei*s  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  Magazine  articles 
deaUng  with  the  problems  of  Negro  labor  during  the  war  and  recon- 
struction and  the  work  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  were  pre- 
pared and  appeared  in  such  magazines  as  The  American  Review  of 
Reviews,  The  Crisis,  The  Pubhc,  and  The  Survey. 

The  United  States  Public  Health  Service  in  its  effort  to  combat 
venereal  diseases  inaugurated  a  special  effort  to  reach  all  Negroes. 
This  office  cooperated  with  the  Public  Health  Service  by  helping  that 
service  to  get  in  tbuch  with  Negro  workers  through  our  field  organi- 
zation in  order  that  they  might  become  acquainted  with  the  facts 
relative  to  disease  as  it  affected  health  and  efficiency. 

The  Negro  workers'  advisory  committees  organized  and  held 
many  public  meetings,  attended  by  both  white  and  colored  citizens, 
to  discuss  the  problems  of  labor  and  the  war.  Speakers  were  sent  to 
hundrt^ds  of  otlier  meetings.  We  estimate  that  each  month  no  less 
than  a  million  Negro  workers  and  hundreds  of  employers  were  reached 
and  influenced  in  this  way. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EARLY  RESULTS  OF  NEGRO  ECONOMICS  SERVICE. 

LAt  the  end  of  the  first  six  months  of  the  work,  Negro  workers' 
advisory  committees,  by  States,  counties,  and  cities,  had  been  wholly 
or  partly  formed  in  11  States,  and  by  the  time  the  armistice  was 
signed  steps  had  been  taken  to  establish  committees  in  three  other 
States.  ~^i 

Nearly  all  of  these  committees,  both  State  and  local,  had  white  ^ 
and  Negro  members  or  had  cooperating  white  members  representing 
organizations  of  white  employee  and  white  workers.  In  aU,  11 
State  committees  and  about  225  local  county  and  city  committees, 
with  a  membership  numbering  more  than  1,000,  were  appointed.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  facts  is  that  out  of  the  invitations  and  accept- 
ances for  service  of  all  of  these  white  and  colored  persons  on  these 
committees,  so  far  as  we  have  any  record,  there  was  only  one  case  of 
a  member  of  one  committee  whose  relationship  on  the  committee 
caused  friction  and  made  necessary  a  request  for  his  resignation. 
There  was  the  heartiest  response  from  citizens  of  both  races  every- 
where. Many  of  them  used  large  amounts  of  time,  gave  their  serv- 
ices, and  often  spent  then*  own  money  to  further  the  departmental 
program.  It  was  the  expressed  opinion  of  many  citizens  of  well- 
knoA\Ti  competence  that  the  holding  of  these  conferences  and  the 
voluntary  cooperation  of  hundreds  of  white  and  Negro  citizens  on  "T 
these  committees,  both  north  and  south,  were  in  themselves  sufficient 
to  justify  aU  the  effort  put  forth  by  the  department.  Even  more 
significant  were  the  many  written  statements  of  commendation  from 
citizens  in  aU  parts  of  the  country  and  from  organizations  that 
cooperated  and  helped  in  the  movement. 

SELECTION  AND  TRAINING  OF  A  STAFF. 

The  selection  and  training  of  a  staff  for  such  work  ordinarily  would 
hardly  be  considered  as  one  of  the  results  of  a  departmental  or  organi- 
zation effort.  However,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is 
usually  serious  doubt  about  the  expert  efficiency  of  Negroes  in  offi- 
cial positions  which  call  for  high  standards  of  character  and  abiUty. 
Often  criticism  has  been  specially  lodged  against  Negroes  in  public 
office.  Therefore,  the  successful  and  effective  selection  and  organiza- 
tion of  a  staff  of  Negro  officials  and  employees,  with  the  necessary 
general  training,  expert  knowledge,  and  experience  to  carry  out  the 
program  of  work  and  to  achieve  the  results  as  shown  in  the  succeeding 
pages,  was  in  itself  an  achievement. 

This  work  of  mediation  between  white  workers,  white  employers, 
and  Negro  workers  called  for  exceptional  qualities  of  mind  and  charac- 
ter in  addition  to  technical  knowledge  and  efficiency.  The  spirit  of 
concihation  and  cooperation,  the  ability  to  see  both  sides  of  any  issue, 
and  the  combination  of  initiative  and  self-control  necessary  to  act 

19 


20  THE  NEGKO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

eflFectively  when  action  is  called  for  and  to  wait  with  patience  when 
action  is  not  strategic  required  persons  far  above  the  average  in  both 
character  and  ability.  The  office  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics 
may  modestly  claim  this  success  as  a  part  of  the  achievement  of  the 
work,  as  it  demonstrates  that  such  a  staff  can  be  built  up  in  the 
public  service. 

The  department  had  previouslv  used  the  services  of  three  Negro 
experts  from  the  Department  of  Commerce.  These  men  were  re- 
tained and  their  duties  readjusted  so  that  throughout  the  period  of 
the  war  and  for  nearly  eight  months  of  reconstruction  they  gave 
effective  service — Charles  E.  Hall  as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics 
for  Ohio,  William  Jennifer  as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for 
Michigan,  and  Harry  E.  Arnold  as  an  examiner  and  special  agent  in 
the  United  States  Employment  Service  in  Pennsylvania.  As  the 
organization  grew,  the  following  men  were  added:  T.  C.  Erwin, 
supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  Virginia;  Dr.  A.  M.  Moore,  super- 
visor of  Negro  economics  for  North  Carolina,  who  served  as  a  doUar-a- 
year  man,  with  R.  McCants  Andrews  as  assistant ;  WiUiam  M.  Ashby, 
supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  New  Jersey ;  W,  O.  Arm  wood,  super- 
visor of  Negro  economics  for  Florida ;  Lemuel  L.  Foster,  supervisor  of 
Negro  economics  for  Mississippi,  who  succeeded  J.  C.  Olden,  resigned 
for  other  work  after  doing  valuable  service;  H.  A.  Hunt,  supervisor 
of  Negro  economics  for  Georgia ;  and  Forrester  B.  Washington,  super- 
visor of  Negro  economics  for  Illinois.  In  addition,  the  qualifications 
and  recommendations  of  a  number  of  Negro  examiners  in  the  United 
States  Employment  Service,  as  well  as  stenographers  and  clerical 
assistants,  were  investigated  and  passed  upon  by  the  office  of  the 
Director  of  Negro  Economics. 

In  the  office  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  at  Washington 
headquarters,  Karl  F.  Phillips,  as  assistant  to  the  director,  ably 
managed  the  office  and  closely  associated  with  the  director  in  the 
fuU  supervision  of  the  work.  A  competent  staff  of  clerical  employees 
was  added  as  the  growth  of  the  work  made  it  necessary. 

These  Federal  officials  performed  their  duties  with  enthusiasm, 
efficiency,  and  success  unaer  the  many  trying  circumstances  which 
arose  during  the  strenuous  months  of  the  war  labor  program  and  the 
first  months  of  reconstruction.  Their  services  as  a  part  of  this  experi- 
ment in  the  Federal  Government's  relation  to  Negro  wage  earners 
has  been  a  contribution  to  the  experience  with  Negroes  in  important 
administrative  positions. 

The  facts  about  each  State  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  follow 
in  sections  describing  the  activities  and  results  of  the  work  in  each 
State. 

PROBLEMS  OF  NEGRO  LABOR. 

Before  entering  the  detailed  discussion  of  migration  and  the  ex- 
periences in  11  States,  a  summarized  statement  of  the  problems  of 
Negro  labor  during  the  war  and  reconstruction  period,  extracted 
from  reports  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  to  the  Secretary  of 
Labor,  follows: 

I,  During  the  war  period.  ' 

1,  The  movement  of  large  numbers  of  Negro  "workers  from  the  South  to  the 

North, 
g,  The  inevitable  maladjustment  in  living  gonditiona  confronting  t^**  n.©^"' 

comers  in  the  I^ort.h, 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  21 

3.  The  delicate  questions  of  relations  of  Negro  workers  and  white  workers  in 

northern  industries  into  which  Negroes  were  for  the  first  time  entering  in 
large  numbers. 

4.  The  difficulties  and  readjustments  in  southern  agricultural  regions,  due  to 

the  sudden  departure  of  thousands  of  tenants  and  farm  laborers,  as  well 
as  the  readjustments  in  industrial  operations  in  the  South,  due  to  the  same 
causes. 

5.  The  attraction  to  centers  of  war  industries  and  construction  camps  and  can- 

tonments, both  north  and  south,  due  to  the  wages  offered,  which  were 
higher  than  those  prevailing  in  post-war  industry  and  agriculture. 

6.  The  serious  labor  shortage,  both  north  and  south,  white  and  colored,  due  to 

the  drafting  of  millions  of  men  into  the  Army. 

n.  During  the  reconstruction  period. 

1.  The  thousands  of  Negro  workers  in  war  industries  who  had  to  be  shifted  back 

to  post  war  industries  along  with  the  other  workers  called  for  special  at- 
tention similar  to  the  period  when  they  were  being  shifted  into  war 
industries. 

2.  Probably  between  400,000  and  500,000  workers  migrated  from  the  South  to 

northern  industries.  The  difficulties  of  cooperative  adjustment  of  white 
wage  earners  and  Negro  wage  earners  in  the  industrial  communities  where 
they  must  find  community  life  in  contact  with  each  other  were  increased. 

3.  Special  problems  connected  with  the  entrance  of  colored  women  into  indus- 

try and  special  problems  in  domestic  and  personal  ser\-ice. 

4.  The  problems  of  improving  the  conditions,  increasing  the  efficiency,  and 

encouraging  the  thrift  of  Negro  workers  were  probably  greater  during  the 
war  and  still  remain  as  reconstruction  problems. 

5.  In  the  South  the  common  interests  of  white  employers  who  want  to  engage 

the  services  which  the  Negro  wage  earner  has  to  offer  and  the  desire  of  the 
worker  for  wages  in  return  make  the  adjustment  of  the  Negro  labor  situa- 
tion one  of  the  most  far-reaching  factors  in  bringing  about  just  and  ami- 
cable race  relations.  The  migration  and  war  restlessness  of  the  two  races 
creates  problems  which  the  labor  nexus  may  be  very  effective  in  settling. 

6.  The  adjustment  of  farm  tenantry  and  of  the  labor  situation  in  the  South 

is  very  largely  a  problem  of  Negro  labor. 

7.  For  the  first  12  months  following  the  armistice  the  problem  of  demobiliza- 

tion of  thousands  of  Negro  soldiers  called  for  cooperative  action,  and 
more  tact  and  judgment  than  were  probably  needed  during  the  period 
when  they  were  being  drafted  out  of  production  into  the  Army.  The 
return  of  the  Negro  soldier  to  civil  life,  with  the  obligations  of  the  Nation 
to  him,  has  been  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  difficult  labor  questions  con- 
fronting the  Nation,  north  and  south. 

8.  The  improvement  of  living  and  working  conditions,  including  such  ques- 

tions as  housing,  sanitation,  and  recreation  of  Negro  wage  earners,  should 
receive  more  attention  during  this  period  of  reconstruction  and  peace 
time  than  they  did  before  or  during  the  Great  War  period. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

COOPERATION  WITH  THE  SEVERAL  BUREAUS  AND  DIVISIONS 
OF  THE  DEPARTMENT. 

Where  matters  which  manifestly  or  directly  affected  Negro  wage 
earners  came  under  the  immediate  administrative  guidance  of  the 
several  divisions  and  bureaus  of  the  department,  it  was  the  plan  of 
the  Secretary  that  the  heads  or  chiefs  of  such  divisions  or  bureaus 
should  call  upon  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  for  advice. 

The  United  States  Employment  Service,  which  was  dealing  with 
the  recruiting  and  placmg  of  Negro  labor  in  the  United  States, 
naturally  received  the  largest  amount  of  such  cooperation,  advice,  and 
planning.  For  instance,  questions  came  up  relating  to  private  agencies 
and  their  handling  of  Negi'o  labor  on  ana  after  August  1,  1918,  when 
the  Employment  Service  was  given  the  responsibility  of  recruiting  and 
placing  the  common  labor  in  war  industries  employing  100  or  more 
workers.  The  Director  of  Negro  Economics  gathered  the  facts  and 
proposed  a  plan  and  policy  for  dealing  with  this  matter.  Such  plan 
and  policy  were  later  adopted  and  put  into  operation  by  the  Director 
General  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service. 

The  members  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committees  in  many 
localities  assisted  as  volunteers  during  this  war-labor  recruiting  and 
placing.  Eight  of  the  State  supervisiors  of  Ncoto  economics  had 
their  offices  either  with  the  Federal  directors  of  the  Employment 
Service  or  in  close  comiection  with  them.  All  of  the  Federal  directors 
in  these  States  turned  to  these  State  supervisors  for  advice  and  assist- 
ance on  practically  all  matters  relating  to  the  handling  of  Negro 
labor  in  their  States.  The  question  of  location  of  offices  to  serve 
Negro  neighborhoods,  the  formation  of  policies  and  plans  of  the  Em- 
ployment Service  to  serve  them  more  effectively,  the  selection  of 
competent  Negro  examiners,  and  a  number  of  other  questions  were 
from  time  to  time  presented  and  handled  for  the  Employment 
Service.  The  following  excerpts  from  statements  of  some  of  the 
Federal  directors  of  the  Employment  Service  show  their  apprecia- 
tion of  this  service  given  by  representatives  of  the  Division  of  Negro 
Economics: 

Umted  States  Employment  Service. 

74  East  Gay  Street,  Columbus,  Ohio,  April  9,  1919. 
Mr.  Ethelbert  Stewart, 

Director  of  Investigation  and  Inspection  Service, 

Office  of  the  Secretary,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. 

My  Dear  Mr.  Stewart:  Mr.  Charles  E.  Hall,  who  has  been  supervisor  of  Negro 
economics  in  Ohio,  handed  me  a  copy  of  your  letter  of  March  27  with  reference  to  his 
reports  bein?  made  through  the  office  of  the  Federal  director  for  Ohio. 

Mr.  Hall  has  been  located  in  the  office  of  the  Federal  director  for  the  past  several 
months  and  we  are  very  glad  to  advise  that  the  relationship  is  very  pleasant.  We 
feel  that  Mr.  Hall  is  a  very  competent  man  and  especially  fitted  for  the  line  of  work 
to  which  he  is  assigned. 

This  letter  is  written  as  an  acknowledgment  of  the  receipt  of  instructions  contained 
in  your  letter  of  above  date.  ' 

Very  truly,  yours, 

(Signed)  C.  H.  Mayhugh, 

Acting  Federal  Director  for  Ohio.   I 

22 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK    DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  23 

1423  Newton  Street,  Washington,  D.  C,  July  9,  1919. 
Dr.  George  E.  Haynes, 

Director  of  Negro  Economics,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. 
My  Dear  Dr.  Haynes:  I  very  much  regret  to  learn  that  failure  of  appropriation 
has  made  it  necessary  to  discontinue  the  work  wMch  has  1)een  carried  on  by  ^Ir. 
Charles  E.  Hall,  8uper^•isor  of  Negro  economics  for  Ohio. 

Mr.  Hall  assisted  the  Employment  Ser\"ice  in  every  possil^le  way  in  recruiting  labor 
during  the  war  and  in  the  readjustment  of  labor  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice. 

The  big  task  before  Mm  at  this  time  is  to  assist  in  crystallizing  the  best  thought  and 
carrjing  out  the  best  possible  plans  for  impro^'ing  housing  conditions  and  aiding  the 
Negroes  to  become  satisfactorily  adjusted  to  the  new  industrial  condition  which  con- 
fronts them.  His  work,  I  believe,  has  been  a  real  factor  in  preventing  the  develop- 
ment of  radical  unrest  among  the  Negroes  in  Ohio. 

My  knowledge  of  Mr.  Hall's  work  was  gained  through  contact  as  Federal. Director 
of  EmplojTQent  for  Ohio,  from  which  position  I  resigned  March  15,  1919. 
Very  truly,  yours, 

(Signed)  Fred  C.  Croxton. 


United  States  Employment  Service, 

Meridian,  Miss.,  January  29,  1919. 
From:  Federal  director. 
To:  Director  General. 
Subject:  Negro  Economics  Di\Tsion. 

1.  In  rephdng  to  letter  from  Assistant  Director  General,  dated  January  23,  in  ref- 
erence to  I)i\ision  of  Negro  Economics. 

2.  In  this  connection  the  writer  wishes  to  state  that  this  ser\dce  is  providing  an 
office  on  the  same  floor  as  the  office  of  the  Federal  director  for  the  supervisor  of  Negro 
economics.  The  present  supervisor,  L.  L.  Foster,  a  young  Negro  of  energj%  is  con- 
ferring almost  daily  with  the  Federal  director  in  reference  to  his  work. 

3.  The  writer  attended  the  meeting  of  the  Negro  State  ad\isory  board  in  Jackson, 
Monday,  January  27,  at  which  meeting  plans  were  perfected  for  the  organization  of 
the  Negro  boys  between  the  ages  of  16  and  21  in  Mississippi  in  the  Boys'  Working 
Reserve.  Cooperation  has  been  obtained  from  the  State  agriculture  college,  and  they 
have  agreed  to  supply  instructors  wherever  necessary  to  instruct  these  Negro  boys  in 
a  short  coiu'se  prepared  by  the  Reserve.  Arrangements  were  made  for  visiting  and 
organizing  reserves  in  approximately  twenty  industrial  Negro  schools  in  the  State 
for  the  gi\ing  of  this  course  in  connection  with  these  schools  in  the  early  spring.  This 
Ser\ice  will  then  undertake  to  place  these  students  in  active  farm  work  as  soon  as 
school  is  closed. 

4.  The  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  in  the  State  of  Mississippi  is  well  or- 
ganized and  the  work  is  prospering  very  satisfactorily. 

(Signed)  H.  H.  Weir, 

Federal  Director. 


Detroit,  Mich,  July  2,  1919. 
From:  Federal  director. 

To:  Director  General,  United  States  Employment  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Subject:  Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics  for  Michigan. 

1.  On  Thursday  of  last  week  ]Mr.  William  Jennifer,  who  for  the  past  nine  months 
has  been  acting  as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  Michigan,  advised  me  that  he 
was  in  receipt  of  communication  from  Washington  directing  him  to  report  there  im- 
mediately. He  left  here  on  Friday  morning,  and  at  the  time  of  his  leaving  stated  that 
he  was  somewhat  worried  in  regards  to  the  work,  which  he  had  been  carrying  on  here 
in  Michigan,  being  continued. 

2.  At  the  time  Mr.  Jennifer  came  to  Michigan  he  at  once  proceeded  to  develop  the 
State,  and  within  a,  short  time  after  his  arrival  a  conference  was  held  here  in  Detroit, 
and  there  was  in  attendance  representatives  from  19  different  cities  in  Michigan.  An 
organization  was  perfected  at  that  time,  and  great  good  has  come  from  the  results  of 
that  meeting.  The  writer  attended  this  conference  and  had  an  opportunity  to  meet 
with  these  representatives,  who  consisted  of  ministers,  doctors,  lawyers,  welfare 
workers,  and  workingmen.  These  people  went  back  to  their  respective  localities 
and  proceeded  to  enlighten  the  colored  people  of  their  community  regarding  the  efforts 
being  made  by  the  Government  to  assist  them  in  caring  for  the  interests  of  the  Negroes 
who  are  rapidly  moving  here  from  the  Southern  States. 


24  THE    NEGRO   AT   WORK    DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

3.  It  would  appear  to  the  -nriter  that  there  is  no  -work  of  greater  importance  which 
the  Government  might  be  interested  in  at  this  time  than  that  or  assisting  the  colored 
people  to  bring  about  better  conditions  for  their  race. 

4.  Since  coming  to  Michigan,  Mr.  Jennifer  haa  worked  hard  and  given  to  the  duties 
assigned  to  him  all  his  time  and  efforts.  He  is  a  splendid  gentleman  and  his  heart  is 
in  his  work.  He  thoroughly  understands  the  Kegro  problem.  In  the  mind  of  the 
writer,  he  is  an  exception  to  the  average  person,  and  we  should  very  much  like  to  see 
him  return  to  Michigan  to  carry  on  this  good  work  which  he  haa  been  doing,  and 
desire  to  urge  upon  you  the  importance  of  this  department  being  continued. 

(Signed)  J.  V.  Ounxinqham, 

Federal  Director. 


United  States  Employment  Service, 
9  Franklin  Street,  Newark,  N.  J.,  April  2,  1919. 
Prof.  George  E.  Haynes, 

Director  of  A'egro  Economics,  Washington,  D.  C. 
My  Dear  Dr.  Haynes:    It  is  my  understanding  that  you  desire  an  expression  of 
opinion  as  to  the  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Negro  Economics. 

I  am  glad  to  inform  you  that  it  is  our  understanding  that  Negro  advisorj^  committees 
have  been  organized  in  the  principal  industrial  centers  throughout  the  State.  Those 
committees  hold  regular  meetings  at  which  Mr.  Ashby  (supervisor  of  Negro  economics 
for  New  Jersey)  is  often  present  and  he  addresses  these  groups  on  matters  relative  to 
the  situation  pertaining  to  Negro  labor  in  the  State  and  adxTses  them  as  to  how  they 
can  make  the  best  of  their  opportunities.  Committees  of  this  character  have  been 
helpful  in  the  offices  in  the  matter  of  opportunities  for  colored  men  and  women,  and 
also  in  molding  sentiment  in  favor  of  colored  workers. 

The  Camden  (N.  J.)  committee  is  doing  an  especially  fine  piece  of  work  in  the 
interest  of  the  returning  colored  soldiers.  Mr.  Ashby  personally  attends  the  meetings 
of  the  welfare  organizations  wherever  it  is  possible  in  the  State,  giving  specific  atten- 
tion to  the  benefits  that  may  accrue  to  the  colored  workers. 

Personally,  I  can  only  speak  in  the  highest  terms  of  the  work  which  he  has  been 
enabled  to  accomplish  for  the  benefit  of  the  Negro  workers  of  New  Jersey.  I  feel  quite 
satisfied  that,  responsive  to  the  energetic  work  which  he  has  performed,  various 
colored  organizations  throughout  the  State  found  it  advisable  for  their  best  interests 
to  send  telegrams  to  the  various  Washington  representatives  asking  for  continuation 
of  the  United  States  Employment  Service. 
Very  truly,  yours, 

(Signed)  J.  Spitz, 

Assistant  Federal  Director  of  Employment  for  New  Jersey. 

Also,  in  Virginia  and  Alabama  service  of  cooperation  was  ^iven  to 
the  Boys'  Working  Reserve  in  assisting  its  representatives  m  those 
States  to  secure  helpful  contacts  with  Negro  boys. 

When  the  Women's  Bureau  was  established  in  the  department,  it 
was  natural  that  its  scope  of  activities  should  include  attention  to 
conditions  affectmg  colored  women  workers  and  that  this  bureau 
should  comisel  and  work  closely  with  the  office  of  the  Director  of 
Negro  Economics,  which  gave  assistance  not  only  in  findmg  and 
selectmg  ^Irs.  Helen  B.  Irvin  as  industrial  agent  for  the  work  among 
colored  women,  and  m  secm'ing  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Ross  Haynes  (as  a 
dollar-a-year  employee)  for  the  direction  of  the  same  work,  but  also 
in  makuig  surveys  of  Negro  women  m  industrial  establishments  and 
m  taking  other  steps  for  improvement  of  working  conditions  and 
relations  of  Negro  women  in  industry,  carried  out  in  joint  cooperation 
with  that  service.  (For  full  summary  of  reports  see  section  on 
"Negro  Women  in  industry,"  pp.  124-133.) 

These  experts  entered  upon  their  duties  in  November,  1918.  They 
performed  miportant  field  service  of  a  varied  character,  and  the  data 
collected  by  them,  together  with  their  recommendations,  after  receiv- 
mg  the  counsel  and  advice  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics, 
formed  the  basis  of  concrete  labor  policies  which  the  Women's  Bureau 


THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  25 

is  now  putting  into  effect  in  behalf  of  female  Negro  workers.  Some 
of  the  facts  gathered  are  published  in  another  section  of  this  bulletin. 

The  Investigation  and  Inspection  Service  not  only  made  a  number 
of  investigations  of  plants  of  various  kinds  involved  m  the  depart- 
ment relating  to  Negro  wage  earners  but  this  service  took  upon 
itself  the  employment  of  a  competent  Negro,  Byron  K.  Armstrong, 
who  was  also  associated  with  the  office  of  the  Director  of  Negro 
Economics.  The  field  mvestigations  for  the  data  m  Chapters  VIII 
and  X,  which  deal  with  Negroes  m  the  seven  basic  industries  in 
northern  centers  were  made  by  him.  and  other  representatives  of 
that  service  in  an  effort  to  ascertain  the  conditions  and  relations  ob- 
taming  between  Negro  workmen  who  had  entered  northern  industries 
and  white  workers. 

Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  cooperation  received  from 
the  Council  of  National  Defense  in  startmg  and  developing  a  program 
for  Negro  workers  in  the  South.  The  national  office  of  the  comicil, 
at  Washington,  D.  C,  which  dealt  with  the  State  comicils,  gave  our 
plans  indorsement,  together  with  full  information  and  advice,  and 
furnished  letters  of  mtroduction.  The  officials  of  State  comicils  in 
Virgmia,  Florida,  Georgia,  Alabama,  and  Kentucky  extensively 
promoted  the  cooperative  plan  of  organization.  In  Virgmia,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Florida  the  executive  secretary  of  the  State  Comicil  of 
National  Defense  arranged  for  an  appomtment  of  white  cooperating 
members  of  the  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committees.  The  Georgia 
council  gave  its  advice  to  our  State  committee,  the  governor  of 
Georgia,  Hon.  Hugh  M.  Dorsey,  as  chairman  of  the  comicil,  having 
issued  the  invitation  for  the  State  conference.  The  Alabama  Council 
of  National  Defense  appomted  a  Negro  auxiliary  to  assist  with  the 
work.  The  Kentucky  Comicil  of  National  Defense  was  the  main 
organization  m  promoting  the  formation  of  Negro  Workers'  Advisory 
Committees  in  its  State. 

The  cooperation  of  private  organizations  and  agencies,  both  local 
and  national,  was  so  hearty  and  widespread  that  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  name  a  list  of  the  organizations  that  gave  such  coopera- 
tive service. 


•    '  CHAPTER  V. 

NEGRO  LABOR  AND  RACIAL  RELATIONSfflPS  AT  CfflCAGO. 

[Extract  from  report  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  to  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  through  the  Assist- 
ant Secretary  on  the  subject  of  Negro  labor  situation  in  Chicago,  III.,  and  other  localities,  following 
race  disturbances  at  Chicago.] 

August  27,  1919. 
Reports  having;  been  received  at  the  office  of  the  Secretary  about 
disturbance  at  the  stockyards  in  Chicago  and  other  places  of  employ- 
ment where  Negroes  have  ordinarily  been  engaged,  follow-ing  the  race 
riots  in  that  city,  after  departmental  conference,  I  was  instructed 
by  the  Assistant  Secretary  to  proceed  to  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Detroit, 
Cleveland,  and  near-by  pvoints  in  the  territor}^  to  ascertain,  first  hand, 
the  change,  if  any,  in  the  labor  situation.  This  report  covers  the 
results  of  a  rapid  survey  of  Chicago,  of  inquiries  during  a  day  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  during  brief  visits  to  Detroit  and  Flint,  Mich.,  and  some 
statements  secured  on  a  stop-over  in  Cleveland  on  the  return  trip. 
I  have  also  included  tlie  substance  of  reports  from  reliable  Negroes, 
residents  of  several  other  cities. 

THE    CHICAGO   SITUATION. 

The  disturbance  in  Cliicago  seems  to  have  grown  out  of  complex 
fundamental  conditions,  mainly  economic.  Some  of  the  factoi-s  are 
not  altogether  Inhor  factors  but  are  largely  the  results  of  the  labor 
and  other  economic  conditions.  From  the  testimony  secured  from 
locaUties  other  than  Cliicago,  I  am  convinced,  also,  that  the  Chicago 
situation  is  partly  typical,  so  far  as  the  underlying  factors  in  labor 
and  other  economic  conditions  are  concerned. 

Therefore,  in  giving  full  attention  to  it,  we  view  conditions  that  are 
typical  of  many  industrial  centers.  The  demand  for  labor  during 
the  past  five  years  drew  large  numbers  of  Negroes  from  the  South. 
They  have  become  almost  putty  in  the  hands  of  three  more  or  less 
conflicting  interests:  (a)  The  employers,  (b)  white  workmen,  very 
largely  organized,  and  (c)  politicians. 

1.  Taking,  first,  the  labor  situation:  In  the  early  years  of  the  stock- 
yards development  the  labor  supply  was  mainly  American,  German, 
and  Irish  that  lived  near  the  stockyards.  When  the  stockyards  were 
moved  to  their  present  location — at  that  time  far  removed  from  the 
residential  and  business  districts  of  the  city — Irish  and  German  ele- 
ments settled  around  the  yards.  With  the  coming  of  the  Poles  and 
other  nationahties,  following  the  great  strike  of  1904,  the  Irish  were 
pushed  across  Halstead  Street  and  beyond  Tliirty-ninth  Street.  The 
German  element  occupies  neighborhoods  on  the  other  side  of  the  yards 
and  out  toward  Englewood. 

With  the  growth  of  employment  of  Negroes  in  the  stockyards,  there 
has  been  continuous  effort  on  the  part  of  white  workers  to  draw  them 
into  their  unions.  This  has  been  only  partially  successful.  Some 
dissatisfaction  has  resulted,  and  the  union  workers  charged  that  the 

26 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  27 

packers  have  used  Negro  leaders  to  prevent  unionizing  Negroes.  The 
packers  have  denied  any  interference  with  the  effort  to  unionize 
Negroes.  It  can  not  be  told  how  much  friction  and  feeling  between 
the  races  this  has  caused.  Testimony  goes  to  show,  however,  that 
there  has  developed  some  friction  between  Negro  workers  and  the 
Irish  element  at  the  yards.  This  did  not  seem  to  have  any  connec- 
tion with  the  union  situation  but  with  individual  contacts. 

Whether  this  friction  had  any  direct  connection  with  the  rioting 
is  not  fuUy  established.  AU  the  testimony,  however,  shows  that  the 
point  of  greatest  friction  was  where  the  Negro  neighborhood  touched 
the  Irish  neighborhood  on  the  South  Side.  There  was  considerable 
mention  in  tlie  testimony  of  an  Irish  athletic  association,  known  as 
Regan's  Colts.  This  was  started  as  a  sort  of  political  and  athletic 
association,  but  now  has  a  reputation  for  considerable  rowdyism. 

2.  The  housing  situation  is  another  economic  element.  Many  of 
those  famihar  with  the  conditions  preceding  the  riots  claim,  however, 
that  there  is  little  relation  between  the  feehng  aroused  about  the 
housing  and  the  riots.  However  that  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  a 
large  influx  of  Negroes  (about  doubhng  the  Negro  population  of  Chicago 
within  five  yeai-s)  has  created  an  acute  housing  situation  on  the  South 
Side.  This  population  has  flowed  out  of  the  area  previously  occupied 
by  Negroes  and  on  into  the  areas  occupied  by  whites,  pressing  upon 
the  districts  known  as  Englewood  and  Kenwood.  The  white  resi- 
dents have  organized  an  association  of  residents.  Rehable  testi- 
mony, gained  confidentially  from  some  of  their  meetings,  establishes 
the  fact  that  there  was  considerable  agitation,  even  suggestions  of 
violence,  to  keep  Negroes  from  renting  and  buying  in  the  white  dis- 
trict. Popular  gossip  connects  the  bombing  of  Negro  residences  with 
this  agitation. 

3.  The  poUtical  situation  is  a  third  factor  of  importance.  These 
underlying  forces  of  the  attraction  during  the  last  five  years  of 
large  numbers  of  Negro  workers  of  the  unskilled  type,  the  friction 
over  the  housing  congestion  and  the  tension  over  pohtical  affairs  were 
continually^  played  upon  and  inflamed  by  agitation. 

Some  agitation  arose  from  the  persons  highly  active  and  prejudiced 
against  Negroes.  There  were  various  clashes  of  individuals  here  and 
there.  There  were  repeated  attempts  to  frighten  Negroes  from  resi- 
dences by  bombing  their  houses.  There  was  quite  a  bit  of  newspaper 
publicity  during  the  period  of  months  preceding  the  riots. 

All  these  incidents  prepared  the  way  for  the  underlying  labor, 
housing,  and  pohtical  fires  of  friction  to  burst  into  the  flames  of  riot 
and  death.  The  occasion  for  the  outbreak  on  Sunday,  July  27,  when 
white  bathers  stoned  a  Negro  youth,  knocking  him  from  a  raft  and 
causing  him  to  drown,  was  only  the  match  which  lighted  the  blaze. 

4.  The  situation  which  developed  at  the  stockyards,  resulting  in  a 
walkout  of  many  of  the  union  employees,  was  only  indirectly  the 
result  of  the  race  riot.  Some  of  the  leadere  of  the  Amalgamated 
Meat  Cutters  and  Butcher  Workmen  of  North  America  say  that  no 
strike  was  authorized,  but  that  it  is  a  code  of  the  unions  not  to  work 
in  any  place  where  police  and  miUtary  guards  are  over  them. 

Apparently  the  emploj^ers  at  the  stockyards,  fearing  trouble  when 
the  Negroes  returned  to  work  on  the  Thursday  following  the  riots, 
took  the  precaution  of  having  extra  poUce  guards  and  details  of 
mihtia.     The  union  workmen  interpreted  the  presence  of  these  guards- 


28  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

men  as  a  move  against  them.  Inmiediately  many  of  the  union  work- 
ers, among  them  some  of  the  Negro  union  men,  protested  by  leaving 
their  work  and  by  sending  a  committee  of  protest  to  pubhc  officials. 
Colored  union  men  were  on  this  committee.  By  Monday  of  the 
follo-wnng  week,  however,  the  militia  had  been  i-emoved  and  the 
resentment  of  the  union  men  apparently  quieted  down. 

Both  the  employees  and  the  management  of  the  stockyards  testi- 
fied that  there  was  no  friction  within  the  3^ards  when  the  men  re- 
turned to  work.  Many  evidences  of  good  feeling  and  cooperation 
between  white  and  colored  workers  were  manifested.  The  occasion 
was  one,  of  course,  when  both  the  leaders  of  the  unions  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  packers  were  disclaiming  any  responsibility  for  the 
situation. 

With  this  underlying  condition  confronting  the  community  there 
was  very  limited  contact  between  the  more  thoughtful  and  liberal- 
minded,  social-minded  citizens  of  the  two  races.  Barring  the  few- 
leaders  of  the  labor  unions  and  a  few  representatives  of  philanthropic 
organizations  there  were  few  contacts  through  which  there  might  be 
mutual  understanding  between  the  races.  The  facts  also  seem  to 
show  that  the  large  number  of  Negro  unskilled  workers  directly  from 
the  South,  both  in  their  competition  for  work  and  in  their  needs 
for  decent  houses  in  good  smToundings,  were  being  used  and  ex- 
ploited. The  forces  to  help  them,  and  thus  to  benefit  the  commu- 
nity, were  few  and  comparatively  weak. 

It  was  also  clear  that  the  fuU  sentiment  of  the  employers,  the 
largest  of  whom  are  the  packers,  favors  the  retention  of  the  Negroes 
in  Chicago.  On  the  other  hand,  the  white  union  workers  fear  this 
competition  of  Negro  workers  miless  they  can  induce  them  to  enter 
the  unions. 

During  the  course  of  the  riot  the  Association  of  Commerce  called  a 
conference  of  the  representatives  of  47  business  and  philanthropic 
organizations  of  the  city  at  the  Union  League  Club.  The  outcome 
of  this  meeting  was  a  resolution  requesting  the  governor  to  appoint 
a  committee  "to  study  the  psychological,  sociological,  and  econom- 
ical causes  underlying  conditions  resulting  in  the  present  race  riot 
and  to  make  such  recommendation  as  will  tend  to  prevent  a  recur- 
rence of  such  conditions  in  the  future." 

Gov.  Lowden  told  me  he  had  decided  to  appoint  a  local  com- 
mission for  Chicago  only.  This  wiU  be  composed  of  six  white  and  six 
colored  citizens  of  the  highest  standing     *     *     *. 

5.  liYom  the  nation-wide  point  of  view  another  factor  enters  to 
make  the  Chicago  situation  complicated  and  of  importance.  It  is 
of  special  concern  to  this  department  in  its  relation  to  the  whole 
matter  of  migration  of  Negro  workers  and  the  adjustment  of  their 
relations  to  white  workers  and  white  employers  both  north  and  south. 

Immediately  following  the  riots  Chicago  newspapers  began  to  pub- 
lish dispatches,  lettei-s,  and  news  items  from  southern  territory  invit- 
ing southern  Negroes  to  return  to  the  South  for  good  treatment, 
peace,  and  employment. 

During  the  week  of  my  visit  representatives  of  three  different  plafit- 
ing  interests  of  Mississippi  were  m  the  citv,  and  it  was  reported  that 
a  delegation  was  on  its  way  to  Chicago  from  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce in  New  Orleans  with  a  colored  man  in  the  party  to  "pick  the 
right  type  of  Negroes."     *     *     *. 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  29 

It  is  uncertain  just  how  far  such  an  effort  to  induce  Negroes  to 
return  to  the  South  will  be  successful,  but  the  effort  has  ah-eady 
aroused  considerable  opposition  and  discussion  against  it  among  Ne- 
groes, both  in  their  newspapers  and  other  channels.  Of  course 
immediately  the  ministers  and  newspapers  are  being  accused  of  being 
paid  by  the  packers,  who  want  to  hold  the  Negroes  in  Chicago. 
While  there  are  no  avaDable  facts  to  support  such  allegations,  it  is 
true  that  the  employers  of  Chicago  generally,  according  to  testimony 
of  the  chairman  of  the  Association  of  Commerce  and  other  employers 
in  touch  with  the  situation,  do  not  look  with  favor  upon  efforts  made 
to  take  Negroes  out  of  Chicago.     *     *     * 

The  week  of  my  visit,  of  course,  was  too  soon  to  tell  exactly  how 
far  the  attitude  of  employers  about  employing  Negroes  had  been 
affected  by  race  riots.  The  examination  of  calls  for  Negro  labor  at 
two  employment  offices  showed,  however,  that  beginning  with  August 
5,  just  after  the  close  of  the  riots,  there  had  been  a  gradual  increase 
both  in  the  number  of  calls  for  Negro  help  wanted,  those  referred,  and 
those  placed.  Information  could  be  secured  for  a  few  cases  only 
where  Negroes  had  been  dropped  during  the  days  of  the  riots  and 
had  not  been  replaced  when  the  situation  quieted  down.  The  facts 
so  far  obtainable  indicate  that  in  those  employments  where  Negroes 
were  used  formerly  there  would  probably  not  be  any  material  change 
in  the  use  of  Negro  workers. 

Before  summarizing  the  impressions  gained  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
Detroit,  Mch.,  and  Cleveland,  Ohio,  it  may  be  well  to  point  out  two 
other  significant  factore  influencing  the  racial  situation  in  Chicago 
as  weU  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  first  place,  there  was  a 
very  widespread  dissatisfaction,  bordering  on  bitterness,  among  many 
Negroes,  due  to  the  reports  they  have  received  from  the  returning 
soldiers  about  their  harsh  treatment  in  the  Army,  both  at  home  and 
in  France.  In  many  conversations  and  in  pubhc  gatherings  of 
Negroes  some  of  these  stories  are  rehearsed  and  commented  upon. 
*     *     * 

In  the  second  pJace,  there  is  a  general  feehng  among  aU  classes  of 
Negroes  that  the  Federal  Government  should  do  something  to  remedy 
their  condition.  This  takes  two  forms:  First,  the  abolition  of  evils. 
There  is  a  very  mdespread  and  strong  feeling  that  mobs  and  lynch- 
ing and  other  abuses  now  affecting  Negroes  should  be  taken  in  hand 
by  the  Federal  Government.  Second,  Negroes  are  looking  to  the 
Federal  Government  to  take  some  constructive  steps  for  their  benefit. 
The  great  popularity  of  the  action  of  the  Department  of  Labor 
through  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  for  giving  attention  to 
working  conditions  of  Negroes  and  their  relation  to  white  workers 
and  white  employers  is  largely  due  to  this  feehng  of  the  Negroes  that 
something  should  be  done  for  them  through  the  Federal  Government. 
The  Pubhc  Health  Service  of  the  Treasury  Department  is  meeting 
with  similar  response.     *     *     * 

There  is  a  frequent  comment  among  Negroes  on  this  point  and 
questions  are  asked  repeatedly  why  something  in  a  large  way  is 
not  done  at  this  time.  Larger  efforts  by  Federal  departments  to 
improve  living  and  working  conditions  among  Negroes  will  receive 
hearty  response  from  them. 


30  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

TESTEMOXY  AND  OPINIONS   FROM   ST.    LOUIS,   MO.,   DETROIT  AND  FLINT, 
MICH.,    CLEVELAND,    OHIO,    AND    OTHER    POINTS. 

In  St.  Louis  a  committee  of  colored  citizens  went  to  the  chief  of 
police  during  the  days  of  the  Washington-Chicago  riots.  They 
pledged  him  their  support  and  made  certain  suggestions.  He  and 
the  mayor  immediately  took  steps  to  forestall  any  possible  outbreaks. 
This,  I  was  informed,  led  to  special  instructions  to  the  patrolmen. 
Some  newspaper  publicity  of  a  helpful  kind  was  also  obtained. 
Although  several  individual  clashes  were  reported,  the  sentiment 
seems  to  be  for  (|uiet.  It  was  reported,  however,  to  me  on  good  testi- 
mony that  large  numbers  of  Negroes  have  firearms  and  ammunition 
preparatory  to  protecting  themselves  and  their  homes  in  case  of 
disturbances. 

Detroit,  ^Mich.,  has  had  a  very  large  influx  again  during  the  past 
summer,  the  estimate  being  about  3,000  newcomers  cniring  the 
month  of  June  alone.  These  newcomers  comprise  men,  women, 
and  children.  While  there  is  considerable  congestion  in  one  dis- 
trict there  has,  however,  been  considerable  distribution  of  this 
Negro  population  in  other  sections  of  the  city. 

The  race  friction  here  has  seemed  to  be  small,  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  demand  for  labor  is  greater  than  the  supply.  Every- 
body is  employed  at  high  wages  and  so  busy  that  there  is  hardly 
time  for  the  frictions  that  go  with  unemployment.  In  some  of  the 
industrial  plants  employing  large  numbers  of  Negroes,  the  superin- 
tendents did  take  precaution  during  the  days  when  the  newspapers 
were  reporting  the  riots  in  Washington  and  Chicago  to  prevent  any 
possible  friction  between  white  and  colored  workers  in  their  plants. 
For  instance,  one  of  the  automobile  accessories  companies  separated 
the  white  and  colored  workers  in  the  lunch  rooms  as  a  precaution. 
The  testimony  indicates  that  this  tended  to  cause  friction  rather  than 
to  prevent  it,  as  it  is  reported  that  the  colored  workmen  refused  to 
share  the  lunch  room  with  this  new  arrangement. 

It  was  reported  here  also  that  Negroes  have  provided  themselves 
with  considerable  firearms  and  ammunition  lest  trouble  arise.  One 
factor  in  the  situation  in  Detroit  making  for  harmony  is  the  fact  that 
the  largest  Negro  neighborhood  is  bordered  on  one  side  by  Jews, 
largely  Kussian,  and  on  the  other  side  by  ItaHans.  Cases  of  friction 
resulted  only  in  individual  clashes  that  had  no  group  significance. 
During  the  days  of  the  Washington-Chicago  riots  leading  colored 
citizens  conferred  with  the  mayor  and  other  officials  about  precau- 
tionary steps  to  prevent  any  possible  outbreak. 

In  Cleveland,  Ohio,  there  was  some  fear  during  the  days  of  the  riots 
elsewhere  les^t  there  might  be  some  friction.  An  editorial  in  one  of 
the  colored  newspapers,  warning  Negroes  to  arm  themselves,  drew 
forth  an  article  from  one  of  the  white  newspapers  claiming  that  the 
chief  of  police  had  called  this  editor  to  task,  tlireatening  to  arrest  him 
for  murder  if  anj  riot  occurred  and  any  one  was  killed.  This  was 
denied  by  the  chief  of  poHce  and  the  incident  closed. 

The  colored  editor,  however,  did  receive  some  threatening  letters 
and  there  was  a  report  of  an  attack  upon  a  Ne^o  soldier  by  some 
white  men  in  a  high-powered  automobile  which  ran  into  a  Negro 
neighborhood.  Both  of  these"  incidents  caused  some  excitement 
among  some  of  the  colored  people.    There  was,  however,  a  feeling 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE    WORLD   WAR.  31 

among  some  of  the  influential  white  and  colored  citizens  that  no  race 
disturbance  should  take  place  in  Cleveland. 

Responsible  citizens  I  interviewed,  said  however,  that  the  city- 
would  welcome  any  cooperative  effort  to  study  the  labor  and  other 
economic  conditions  looking  toward  measures  that  would  prevent 
racial  friction  in  the  future. 

From  testimony  of  conditions  which  nearly  resulted  in  riots  in 
Sumter,  S.  C,  Columbia,  S.  C,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  and  from  appre- 
hension expressed  and  testimony  as  to  preparations  made  by  white 
and  colored  people  in  New  York  City,  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  and  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.,- 1  am  led  to  believe  that  the  racial  tension  is  so  wide- 
spread as  to  be  in  fact  a  matter  of  national  concern,  calling  for  some 
attention  from  the  National  Government. 

Respectfully  submitted.  " 

(Signed)  George  E.  Haynes, 

Director  of  Negro  Economics. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
WHITE  AND  NEGRO  WORKERS  IN  BASIC  INDUSTRIES. 

The  distribution  of  Negro  workers  in  industries  both  as  to  States 
and  the  types  of  industries  in  which  they  were  engaged  in  comparison 
with  other  workers  in  industries  in  the  same  vStates  gives  a  good 
impression  of  their  general  part  in  war  production  and  of  the  wide- 
spread contact  of  the  racial  labor  relations.  The  facts  are  set  forth 
in  the  tables  of  this  chapter. 

The  first  table  (Table  I)  gives  a  general  view  of  the  white  and  Negro 
men  engaged  in  industrial  unskilled  occupations  in  establishments 
in  1918  or  at  the  height  of  our  drive  for  war  production.  These  fig- 
ures were  reported  from  the  responsible  employers  themselves  to  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  when  that  service  by  Executive 
order  took  over  the  work  of  recruiting  and  placement  of  unskilled 
labor  in  all  industries  employing  100  or  more  men. 

The  data  about  establishments  selected  for  this  table  were  taken 
at  random  from  the  records  of  the  hundreds  that  reported.  The 
basis  of  selection  was  those  employing  25  or  more  Negro  workers. 
As  many  States  as  practicable  were  represented,  so  as  to  show  the 
wide  distribution  of  employment  of  Negroes,  but  those  included  are 
only  a  small  part  of  the  total  number  reporting.  The  estimate  of 
the  percentage  of  war  work  each  establishment  was  doing,  the  num- 
ber of  hours  per  day,  and  the  rate  of  wages  are  exactly  as  reported 
by  each  firm  itself. 

Unfortunately  for  the  present  purpose  the  reports  did  not  show 
occupational  distribution  of  these  employees.  The  column  showing 
the  kind  of  industrial  operation  carried,  on  by  the  firm  could  be 
classified  only  in  the  ver^  general  way  here  given,  because  of  the 
brevity  of  description  given  in  the  reports.  Tlie  classifications, 
however,  give  some  general  notion  of  the  type  of  each  plant  or  enter- 
prise which  was  employing  these  men.  A  number  of  firms  were 
omitted  because  the  descriptions  would  not  allow  of  even  this  general 
classification. 

Table  I,  wliich  follows  below,  shows  enterprises  in  26  States  and 
the  District  of  Columbia,  which  were,  in  1918,  employing  129,708 
white  men  and  62,340  Negro  men.  TSvelve  Southern  States  and  14 
isi  orthem  States  are  listed.  If  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  seem  to  have 
an  undue  number  of  firms  listed  in  comparison  with  other  States, 
especially  in  the  South,  it  may  be  attributed  to  the  large  entrance  of 
Negro  migrants  into  their  many  industries,  to  the  comparatively  lim- 
ited industrial  development  iri  the  South,  which  is  largely  agricul- 
tural, and  to  the  necessary  exclusion  of  many  firms  in  other  States 
either  because  of  their  employment  of  less  than  25  Negroes  or  because 
of  insufficient  information  in  their  reports. 

The  percentage  of  war  work  upon  wliich  these  enterprises  were 
engaged  shows  the  large  part  these  men  had  in  winning  the  war.  Out 
of  a  total  of  292  firms  which  gave  information  on  this  point  only  23 

32 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  33 

reported  less  than  50  per  cent  war  work  and  only  11  of  these  reported 
25  per  cent  or  less  war  work;  99  firms  reported  from  50  to  99  per 
cent  war  work  and  151  firms  reported  100  per  cent  war  work.  There 
might  have  been  some  bias  in  some  cases,  inasmuch  as  those  firms 
having  the  greatest  percentage  of  war  work  might  have  expected 
some  priority  in  securing  laborers. 

The  wage  rates  are  also  very  interesting  and  indicate  some  con- 
trasts for  the  same  kind  of  industry  in  the  different  sections  of  the 
United  States.  For  instance,  unskilled  workers  in  foundries  were 
employed  at  the  rate  of  $2.50  per  10-hour  day  in  Alabama;  from 
$3.50  per  10-hour  day  (one  firm)  to  $4.25  per  9-hour  day  (one  firm) 
in  Illinois;  $3.20  per  10-houi'  day  (one  plant,  calculated  from  straight 
hourly  rate)  in  Indiana;  $2.50  per  10-hour  day  in  Tennessee  (only 
one  firm)  and  $3.50  to  $4  per  10-hour  day  (calculated  from  straight 
hourly  rate)  in  Virginia. 

Unskilled  workers  in  iron  and  steel  plants  were  employed  at  the 
rate  of  $2.50  to  $3  per  10-hour  day  (one  firm  9  to  12  hours  with  wages 
$2.25  to  $3.79  per  day,  one  firm  10  to  12  hours)  in  Alabama;  from 
$3  to  $4  per  10-hour  day  (calculated  from  straight  hourly  rate)  in 
Illinois;  from  $2.75  to  $3.60  (8,  9,  10,  and  12  hour  day  differently  in 
four  plants)  per  day  in  Indiana;  $3  per  10-hour  day  in  Kentucky; 
from  $2.88  to  $4.95  per  9-hour  day  (calculated  from  straight  hourly 
rate)  in  New  York;  from  $3.40  to  $4  per  10-hour  day  (calculated  on 
straight  hourly  rate)  in  Ohio;  from  $3.20  to  $6  (one  plant  reported 
60  cents  per  hour)  per  10-hour  day  (calculated  from  straight  hourly 
rate)  in  Pennsylvania;  from  $2.40  to  $3.20  per  8-hour  day  (calcu- 
lated from  the  straight  hourly  rate)  and  $2.50  to  $3  (one  plant)  per 
10-hour  day  in  Tennessee;  and  $2.75  per  12-hour  day  (one  plant)  in 
Virginia.  It  shoidd  be  borne  in  mind  constantly  that  during  the 
stress  of  war  production  probably  most  plants  ran  longer  than  the 
regular  hours  and  many  of  their  employees  worked  overtime,  the 
usual  rule  being  to  pay  time  and  a  half  for  overtime,  and  in  some 
cases  double  time.  TTierefore  no  calculation  of  the  actual  average 
earnings  of  the  workmen  can  be  made  from  these  rates  of  pay. 

The  ^'uU  text  of  Table  I  with  details  by  States  f  oUows,  showmg  un- 
skilled white  and  Negro  male  workers  m  selected  typical  war  indus- 
tries by  States  in  1918: 
1989°— 21 3 


34 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


Table  I. —  Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  typical  war  industries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  with  reported  percentage  of  war  work  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  arid  wage  rate,  by  States,  1918. 


ALABAMA. 


Kind  of  industry  of  individual 
enterprise. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 


"SMiite. 


Negro. 


Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 


Number 
of  hours 

in 

working 

day. 


Rate  of  wages. 


Per  hour. 


Ammunition... 
Army  ordnance 

Cement 

Chemicals 

Coal  and  iron... 

Fertilizer 

Foimdry 

Do 

■    Do 

Do 

Iron  and  steel.. 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Lumber 

Sawmill 

DO 

Shipbuilding... 

Do 

Do 

Steel  wire 

Railroad 

Do 

Radiators 


46 
45 

102 
41 
14 
.3 

50 
22 

) 
26 


25 

6 

IR 

:'.50 

100 

5 

16 

150 

5 

750 

9 

20 

73 

1 


58 

200 

88 

122 

84 

25 

75 

178 

110 

317 

25 

75 

136 

171 

600 

100 

60 

37 

100 

189 

500 

211 

300 

1,420 

25 


('). 


100 
100 
100 
100 

100 

95 

100 

100 

100 

100 

25 

93 

95 

75 

100 

100 

100 

98 

90 

30 

100 

100 


10 

10 

12 

9 

10 

10 

10 

10 

9 

10 

10 

10 

10 

9-12 

10-12 

10 

10 

10 

8 

S 

8 

10 

10 

10 

9 


$0.30 


.31 
0. 30-.  33 


.25 


.30-.  40 
.40 

.  30-.  40 
.30 
.34 
.34 
.35 


CONNECTICUT. 


Ammunition 

Iron 

Metal 

Shells 


200 

50 

100 

10 

400 

100 

100 

10 

$0.40 

1,800 

45 

90 

0) 

.33 

219 

59 

100 

11 

.40 

DELAWARE. 


Powder 

Do 

Pyrites 

Shells 

Steel  castings 
War  supplies. 


45 

30 

100 

8 

SO.  40 

60 

44 

100 

10 

.40 

29 

67 

100 

10 

.40 

120 

80 

100 

10 

.40 

28 

27 

100 

9 

0. 37-. 40 

89 

95 

90 

9J 

.36 

1 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

. 

30 

51 
52 

100 
50 

10 

8 

$0.40 
.35 

Paper 

30 

FLORIDA. 

Lumber 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Naval  stores 


232 
50 
20 

150 
11 


217 
226 
465 
350 
324 


100 
100 
100 
90 
80 


$0.25 


1  No  figures  available. 


THE    NEGRO    AT   WORK    DURING    THE    WORLD   WAR. 


35 


Table  I. —  Unskilled  ivhite  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  typical  war  industries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  with  reported  percentage  of  war  tvork  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  and  ivage  rate,  by  States,  19 IS — Continued. 


GEORGIA. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 

Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 

Number 
of  hours 

in 
WT-king 

da)\ 

Rate  of  wages. 

Kind  of  industry  of  individual 
enterprise. 

White. 

Negro. 

Per  hour. 

Per  day. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

134 
'■'75 

m 

169 

147 
225 
300 

12 

80 
100 
80 

10 
10 
10 

8 

SO.  30 

Iron 

$2.00 

2.00 

0. 25-.  35 

• 

ILLINOIS. 


Aluminum... 

Canning 

Castings 

Cork 

Foundry 

Do." 

Iron 

Lumber 

Meat 

Meat  packing 

Paint 

Shells 

Steel 

Stockyards... 

Do 

Zinc 


1,000 

2,921 

1,450 

1,658 

300 

268 

350 

175 

4,110 

3,714 

1,300 

836 

250 

1,151 

3,250 

350 

500 

410 

225 

281 

75 

162 

150 

126 

3,244 

2,375 

50 

417 

250 

604 

1,087 

50 

90 
80 
70 
35 
95 
77 
40 
75 
21 
80 
80 
100 
100 
25 
75 
100 

8 
10 
10 
9 
10 
9 
10 
10 
8 
8 
10 
10 
10 
8 
8 
8 

$0.40 
.36 
.35 

.40 

.40 

.40 

0. 35-.  40 

.:i0-.38 
.40 
.40 

$3.10 


3.50 
3. 50^.  25 


2.25-2.75 


3.50 


3.00-3.90 


INDIANA. 


Foundry 

Gas 

Iron 

Do 

Do 

Iron  and  steel 
Picric  acid . . . 

Plates 

Steel 


75 

150 

70 

470 

156 

100 

(1) 

34 

90 

81 

112 

95 

30 

120 

100 

154 

98 

75 

50 

50 

100 

1,350 

.500 

100 

550 

50 

(') 

10 

$0.32 

8 

.35 

10 

9 

.35 

12 

8 

.30 

10 

.40 

10 

.42 

10 

.33 

$2.75-3.00 


3.60 


IOWA. 

Building 

152 
800 
860 

101 
25 
101 

47 
30 
85 

9 

8 
8 

$4.05 

Foodstuffs 

$0. 37-.  42 
.40 

Meat 

KANSAS. 

Meat  packing 

375 

2,062 

125 

75 
746 
25 

90 
40 
50 

8 
10 

$0.37 
.40 
.41 

Do 

Mining 

I  No  figures  available. 


36 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK    DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 


Table  I. —  Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  typical  vmr  industries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  tvith  reported  percentage  of  war  work  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  arid  wage  rate,  by  States,  1918 — Continued. 


KENTUCKY. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 

Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 

Number 
of  hours 

in 

working 

day. 

Rate  of  wages. 

Kind  of  industry  of  individual 
enterprise. 

White. 

Negro. 

Per  hour. 

Per  day. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Boilers 

137  1             ,55 
438  '              7.5 

(') 

100 
40 

100 
(') 

100 

10 
10 

91 
10 

9i 

1?* 

to.  27-.  40 

Boxes 

$1  75 

Iron 

140 

994 

10 

10 

153 

225 

50 

73 

3.00 

Do 

.30 
.30 

Leather ? 

2.50 

Signal  corps 

27                .5fi 

LOUISIANA. 


Lumber 

Do 

Shipbuilding 
Do 


45 

1,000 

50 

90 


175 

2,000 

150 

304 


100 
100 
100 
100 


80.30 
.30-.40 


$2. 75-3. 00 
2. 00-2. 50 


MARYLAND. 

703 
2,300 

600 
200 

100 
100 

8    1 

$3.00 

Copper 

8     j 

.^.  sn 

1 1 

MASSACHUSETTS. 


Electrical  work . 
Steel  castings . . . 
Sugar 


1,200 

50 
50 
90 

100 
100 
100 

9 
9 
9 

SO.  28-.  30 
.37J 
.37 

150 

410 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Sawmill .• 

1 

38 
100 

125 
310 
900 

100 
100 

10 
10 
10 

$1.50-2.50 

Do 

1.75 

Wood  products 

2. 75-3. 25 

NEBRASKA. 

Meat 

140                 45 
400              100 

100 

8 
8 

SO.  40 

Metal 

$3.20 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Shells 

Tubes 

Shrapnel  loading 


244 

200 

100 

8 

SO.  35 

50 

40 

100 

(') 

.22-.40 

350 

325 

100 

9 

.40 

'No  figures  ftvaJlftWe , 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING  THE   WORL,D  WAR. 


37 


Table  I . —  Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  typical  war  industries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  with  reported  percentage  of  war  work  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  and  wage  rate,  by  States,  1918 — Continued. 


NEW  YORK. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 

Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 

Number 
of  hours 

in 

working 

day. 

Rate  of  wages. 

Kind  of  industry  of  indi^'idual 
enterprise. 

White. 

Negro. 

Per  hour. 

Per  day. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

f. 

0 

750 
2,700 
1,000 
470 
500 
851 
146 
550 
395 
600 

50 
400 
75 
30 
40 
98 
32 
50 
98 
57 

100 
100 
100 

90 
100 
100 

98 
100 

80 
100 

8-10 
8 
9 
8 

10 
10 
9 
9 
9 
10 

$0.34-.40 

Do 

$3.50 

Chemicals 

3.25 

Elevators 

.35 

Glass 

Machinery 

.35 

.36 

.32-.  55 

.37-.  40 

.35-.  38 

Valves 

Steel 

Do : 

Sugar 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 


Aluminum. . . 
Cotton  towels 
Lumber 

Do 

Do 

Shipbuilding. 
Sewerage 


704 
14 
15 
20 
25 

200 


(') 


200 
280 
300 
50 
180 


100 
48 
80 

80 
100 
100 

8 
10 
11 
10 
10 
10 
10 

£0.15 

46 

§2.50 


2.00-2.75 
1. 00-2. 50 
2. 25-3. 00 


OHIO. 


Aluminum 

125 

4.500 

350 

30 

80 

103 

143 

3 

55 

425 

225 

200 

580 

24 

240 

58 

27 

1,300 

220 

300' 

50 

30 

46 

82 

142 

50 

55 

175 

150 

100 

525 

117 

25 

62 

26 

400 

90 

15 

40 

70 

95 

100 

100 

100 

100 

85 

85 

98 

100 

40 

40 

100 

75 

90 

9 

9 

8-10 

8-  9 

9-12 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

10 

11 

10 
81 
10 
10 
10 

$0.38 
035-.37i 

Automobiles 

Bottles 

•'2. 75-3. 50 

Bronze 

.40-.  45 

Cast  ings 

3. 25-3. 75 

Chain 

.30 

Do 

3.00 

Chemicals 

.35 

Fertilizer 

3.50-3.85 

Foundry 

3  75 

Do 

.40 
.35 
.32^ 
.35-.45 

Fuses 

Guns 

Heaters 

Tnlr       .    . 

3.50^3  85 

Rolling  mill 

.34 
.37* 
.38-.  40" 

Shells 

Steel 

OKLAHOMA. 


Meatpacking. 
Petroleimi 


843 
77 

376 
35 

80 
100 

8 
9 

$0.37 

$3.00 


» No  figures  available. 


38 


THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 


Table  I. — Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  typical  war  industries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  with  reported  percentage  of  war  work  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  and  wage  rate,  by  States,  1918 — Continued. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


Kind  of  industry  of  individual 
enterprise. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 


White. 


Negro. 


Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 


Number 
of  hours 

in 

working 

dav. 


Rate  of  wages. 


Per  hour. 


Acids 

Aeroengines 

Air  brakes 

Aliimmum 

Ammunition 

Benzol 

Boilers 

Bolts 

Do 

Do 

Boxes 

Bricks 

Do 

Bronze 

Building 

Cars 

Castings 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Cement 

Chemicals 

Do 

Do 

Coal 

Coal  tar 

Do 

Construction 

Cork 

Dredges 

Electric  supplies . 

Electric  work 

Engines 

Explosives 

Fertilizer 

Gasoline 

Gas  engines 

Glass 

Do 

Gypsum 

Houses 

Iron 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Iron  and  steel 

Iron  bars 

Do 

Leather 

Do 

Do 

Lime 

Limiber 

Machines 

Magnesia 

Do 

Metal 

Molding 

Munitions 

Nuts 

Oils 

Optical  glass 


100 

346 

722 

1,300 

1,500 

25 

1,071 

80 

350 

485 

262 

50 

195 

50 

14 

475 

15 

70 

200 

250 

307 

430 

60 

119 

150 

113 

150 

240 

10 

120 

175 

503 

150 

100 

1,701 

235 

1,413 

910 

250 

589 

3 

50 

90 

93 

100 

425 

600 

729 

2,200 

75 

190 

21 

74 

53 

180 

40 

65 

55 

120 

62 

468 

2,600 

80 

6,000 

50 


45 

110 
67 

100 

300 
33 

120 
30 

100 
35 
29 
60 
35 
20 
86 
25 
75 
45 

100 
80 

120 
40 
40 
95 

100 

159 
75 
33 
50 
27 
25 

152 
57 
25 

175 

109 

359 
29 
50 

280 
68 

200 
30 
92 
25 
25 

150 

2.58 
1,808 
35 
55 
54 
36 

106 
60 
90 
75 
30 
70 
40 
32 
1,900 
40 

250 
85 


100 

95 

95 

90 

100 

100 

100 

95 

0) 

94 

65 

100 

100 

95 

70 

100 

95 

100 

100 

99 

98 

95 

100 

100 

100 

100 

80 

(0 

10 

100 

95 

71 

50 

75 

100 

0) 

100 

97 

50 

10 

70 

100 

100 

90 

100 

100 

70 

90 

100 

80 

68 

100 

60 

90 

100 

85 

100 

90 

85 

100 

92 

90 

79 

100 

75 


9i 

9i 

9-10 

10 

10 

14 

10 

10 

lOi 

10 

10 

10-12 

10 

11-15 

10 

95 

9 

10 

9-10 

10 

10 

10 

9^ 

10-12 

10 

10 

9-10 


10 

9 

10 

9 

8 

10 

10 

12 

10 

10 

11 

10 

10 

10 

8-10 

324 

9 

9 

10 

10 

10 

0) 

10| 

lOi 

10 

12 

9i 

lOi 

10 


$0.40 

.42 

.42 

.34-.  41 


.37i 
.38 
.37i 


.34i 
.35-.  45 


.32i 

.40 

. 34-. 39 

.38-. 45 


.  38-.  41 
.38-.  45 


.41-. 46 
.32 


.40 
'.'35' 


.41 
.38 
.40 
.37i 
.35 
.38 
.32 
.35-.45 


.  35-.  45 


.28-.  30 

.35 

.35 

2.29 

.35 


.28 

.39 

.28-.  35 

.40-.4S 


'  No  figures  available. 


2  Plus  bonus. 


'  Probably  more  than  one  shift. 


*  Week. 


THE    NEGRO    AT    WORK    DURING    THE    WORLD   WAR. 


39 


Table  I. —  Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  ivorkers  in  selected  typical  war  industries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  with  reported  percentage  of  war  work  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  and  wage  rate,  by  States,  1918 — Continued. 


PENNSYLVANIA— Continued. 


RHODE  ISLAND. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 

Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 

Number 
of  hours 

in 

working 

day. 

Rate  of  wages. 

Kind  of  industry  of  indi\'idual 
enterprise. 

AVhite. 

Negro. 

Per  hour 

Per  day. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

0 

6 

3,000 

29 

85 

300 

1,000 

200 

150 

1,008 

84 

349 

497 

500 

107 

50 

200 

950 

150 

319 

171 

7 

35 

35 

50 

76 

100 

130 

150 

334 

340 

470 

500 

940 

701 

1,242 

3,000 

8 

70 

350 

600 

257 

7,750 

710 

725 

500 

400 

650 

1,000 

25 

40 

200 

600 

30 

30 

65 

86 

61 

56 

1,500 

58 

50 

90 

40 

60 

78 

81 

26 

30 

30 

50 

114 

30 

75 

50 

32 

40 

425 

150 

77 

344 

543 

400 

32 

45 

31 

165 

296 

850 

220 

20 

25 

325 

25 

100 

100 

100 

100 
60 
95 
33J 

100 

100 
100 
100 
100 
95 
100 
100 
97 
100 
100 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

95 
100 
100 

85 

SO 
100 

98 
100 
100 

90 
100 
100 
100 

75 
100 
100 

87 
100 
100 
100 
100 

75 

10-12 
10-11 

10 
10-12 
10-12 

10 

10-11 

8 

10 

lU 

10' 

10 

10^ 

10" 

10 

10 
9 

10 
8 

12 

10 

10 

10 
8    . 

10 

10 

10 

lOi 

10" 

101 

12 

12 

10 
9 

10 

f 

lOi 

11* 

10" 

10 

S-10 

10 

\n 

8' 
10 

S0.33-.50 

Pig  iron 

S3. 97-4. 20 

Do      . 

4.55 

Do 

3.15 

Do 

.38 
.33 

Pipe  fittings ... 

Plate  glass 

3.25 

Powder  . . 

.38-.  45 

.37i 

.38 

.30-.  32 

.  35-.  37.1 

Plate  tin . . 

Refrigerators 

Rifles... 

Rivets  and  nails 

.35 
.42 
.37i 
.35 



Shells 

Do 

Do 

Sheet  copper 

3.45 

3.50 

Soap r 

2.80 

Steel 

.30 

Do 

3. 45-3. 90 

Do... 

.60 

.40 

Do 

Do 

4. 50 

Do 

4.00 

Do 

.35-.  48 

Do ; 

4.40 

Do 

.38 
.38 
.40 
.38 

Do 

Do 

Do .      . 

Do 

4.14 

Do 

.38 

."38" 

.34-.  40 

Do 

3.45 

Do 

Steel  castings 

Do 

3.15 

Steel  goods 

.38 
.38 

Steel  hooks 

Steel  Dlates 

3. 20-3. 84 

Do 

.35 

Sugar 

3. 28-3. 80 

Tires 

3.50 

Tools 

4.37 

Warehouses . . 

.35 
.38 

Wire 

Linters. 


92 

196              100 

8 

$0.32 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 


55 
10 
29 

190 
125 
218 

3 

45 

100 

10 
10 
10 

$2. 00-2. 50 

Do 

$0.25-.30 

Do 

'  No  figures  available. 


40 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 


Table  I. —  Unskilled  white  and  Negro  male  workers  in  selected  typical  tvar  indiiatries 
employing  25  or  more  Negroes,  with  reported  percentage  of  war  work  of  each  enterprise, 
hours,  and  wage  rate,  by  States,  1918 — Continued. 

TENNESSEE. 


Number  of  un- 
skilled workers. 

Percent- 
age of 
war  work 
in  which 
workers 

were 
engaged 
at  plant. 

Number 
of  hours 

in 

working 

day. 

Rate  of  wages. 

Kind  of  industry  of  individual 
enterprise. 

^^^lite. 

Negro. 

Per  hour. 

Per  day. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

0 

2S7 
187 
4 
154 
10 
130 
375 
52.5 
900 
143 
550 

263 
188 
154 
120 
100 
120 
100 
375 
600 
69 
250 

100 
75 
100 
100 
100 
100 
85 
100 
98 
95 
100 

10 
11 
10 
10 
10 
10 

8 
10 

8 
10 

8 

S2. 25-2. 50 

>1.75 

Brake  shoes           .        

2.40-3.00 

$0.25 

(') 

2.  SO 

.30-.  38 

Do 

2.50-3.00 

Do                    

.30-.  40 

2.  .50 

Shells."                                

.30-.  40 

TEXAS. 


300 
6 
75 
40 
40 

30 

45 
70 
120 
80 

100 
100 
100 
100 
100 

10 
9 
10 
10 
11 

$0.30-.40 
.30-.33J 

$2.  ,50-6. 00 

Do                                        

2.75 

.30 

VIRGINIA. 


Ammunition  boxes. . . . 

Cement 

Chains 

Chemicals 

Do 

Commissary  contractor. 

Creosoted  material 

Fertilizer 

Do 

Foundry 

Do 

Guncotton 

Houses 

Land  and  gravel 

Lime 

Lumber 

Do 

Do 

Paving 

Pig  iron 

Pipe 

Shell  loading 

Tobacco 


With  board. 


25 

100 

1 

250 


150 

10 

16 

30 

5 

12 

1,158 

80 

10 

57 

116 

200 

(?) 

5 
70 
870 
475 


125 
50 
40 
75 
30 

150 
65 
53 
30 
58 
54 
.5,233 

204 
40 
35 
49 
75 
30 

250 

85 

75 

1,336 

275 


100 
70 
100 
100 


100 
90 


100 
90 
100 
100 
100 
95 
78 
75 
50 
100 
100 
70 
100 
25 


$0.35 
.35 


.35-.  40 
.38J 


.35-.  40 

.35 

.35-.  44 

.35-.  40 


.35 


2  No  figures  available. 


S3. 85 
3.50-5.00 


4.00 
2.50 


4.00 
3.75 


3.00 

2.50 

3. 25-4. 25 

3.00-4.00 

3.00 

3.85 

2.75 

2. 00-5!  00 

3.84 


To  ascertain  more  definitely  and  more  in  detail  facts  needed  in 
understanding  the  problems  involved  in  the  Negro's  new  relation  to 
industry,  the  Inspection  and  Investigation  Service  undertook  an  in- 
tensive study  of  several  basic  industries  employing  Negroes  in  1918- 
19.  Mr.  Byron  K.  Armstrong  and  two  other  investigators  were  sent 
to  visit  establishments  that  were  employing  perhaps  large  numbers 
of  Negroes.     The  study  had  to  be  discontinued  before  completion 


THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  41 

because  the  service  under  which  it  was  being  made  was  abolished 
after  failure  of  appropriations.  The  data,  therefore,  cover  only  a 
few  plants  in  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania  and  does  not  include 
other  States  as  originally  planned.  The  conclusions  that  might 
have  been  drawn,  therefore,  will  necessarily  be  deferred  until  further 
data  is  available. 

The  facts  and  figures  that  were  secured,  however,  are  illuminating 
and  instructive.  The  table  which  follows  below  (Table  II)  gives  the 
details  as  to  kinds  of  occupations,  the  average  number  of  hours 
worked  per  week,  the  average  earnings  per  week,  and  the  average 
earnings  per  hour  of  4,260  white  men  and  2,722  Negro  men  in  194 
occupations  in  23  establishments,  for  six  basic  industries — foundries, 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  automobiles,  coke  ovens,  iron  and 
steel  and  their  products,  and  glass  manufacturing.  A  supplement 
to  this  table  (Table  II)  gives  similar  figures  for  153  white  and  83 
Negro  women  in  slaughtering  and  meat  packing. 

The  occupations  shown  in  these  two  tables  have  been  classified  as 
skilled,  semiskilled,  and  unskilled.  This  classification,  to  be  sure,  is 
uncertain  and  open  to  serious  question  but  is  the  best  designation 
feasible  under  our  present  lack  of  occupational  analysis. 

The  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Department  of  Labor,  says  in  its 
introductory  statement  to  the  first  report  on  its  "Description  of 
Occupations": 

These  descriptions  of  occupations  are  based  on  investigations,  including  private 
interviews  and  correspondence,  extending  over  practically  the  entire  United  States. 
The  one  outstanding  fact  coming  from  this  investigation  is  that  there  are  no  standards 
or  generally  accepted  occupational  names  or  definitions. 

The  classification  in  the  tables  given  below,  however,  were  made 
as  carefully  as  possible,  with  the  assistance  of  the  employment  ex- 
perts of  the  plants  visited,  upon  the  basis  of  descriptions  of  -the 
actual  processes  the  worker  performed.  They  are  not  presented 
as  conclusive,  but  only  as  indicative  of  the  standards  in  proficiency 
required  and  pay  received  for  such  work.  Some  occupations,  "  car- 
penters" for  mstance,  have  been  classed  as  unskilled  or  semiskilled 
that  on  further  consideration  might  be  otherwise  listed.  This  has 
been  done  in  line  with  the  classification  of  work  into  grades  and  plac- 
ing the  work  done  in  a  particular  establishment  in  the  class  that  seems 
most  indicative  of  its  grade. 

Two  comparisons  from  Table  II — the  average  hourly  earnings  of 
Negro  workers  and  the  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week — 
call  for  comment.  There  were  85  occupations  in  which  5  or  more 
Negro  men  and  5  or  more  white  men  each  were  engaged  in  the  23 
plants.  Of  these  occupations  8  were  classified  as  skilled,  25  were 
classified  as  semiskilled,  and  52  were  classified  as  unskilled. 

For  purposes  of  these  comparisons  on  the  average  hours  worked 
per  week  and  average  hourly  earnings  some  cases  of  the  same  occupa- 
tions in  which  five  or  more  Negro  workers  and  five  or  more  white 
workers  were  employed  in  different  plants  were  reckoned  as  a  differ- 
ent unit  of  comparison  of  hours  and  of  wages.  The  average  number 
of  hours  worked  per  week  and  the  average  weekly  earnmgs  are  based 
upon  figures  taken  from  the  official  records  of  each  establishment. 

The  foundries  were  the  only  plants  that  employed  any  considerable 
number  of  Negroes  in  skilled  occupations.  In  6  foundries  there  were 
6  imits  of  comparison  in  skilled  occupations  on  the  basis  here  de- 


42  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

scribed;  meat  packing  and  slaughtering  establishments  reported  only 

1  such  unit  of  comparison  in  skilled  occupations;  5  automobile  estab- 
lishments reported  no  skilled  occupations  in  which  5  or  more  Negroes 
were  employed ;  coke  ovens  (1  establishment)  and  glass  manufacturing 
(1  establishment)  had  no  skilled  occupations  in  which  5  or  more 
Negroes  were  employed  and  only  1  out  of  8  iron  and  steel  plants  re- 
ported 1  skilled  occupation  which  had  a  basis  for  such  unit  of  com- 
parison. 

The  fact  that  foundries  have  such  a  large  representation  of  Negroes 
in  skilled  occupations  may  be  explained  partly  because  Negroes  have 
probably  had  longer  industrial  experience  in  this  industry  than  the 
other  occupations  listed,  except  possibly  coke  ovens.  In  the  table, 
only  1  coke  oven  establishment  is  included,  so  a  comparison  can  not 
be  made.  In  the  South,  for  more  than  a  generation  foundries  have 
employed  Negroes  as  molders  and  in  other  skilled  and  semiskilled 
work.  When  Negro  workers  migrated  North,  this  was  the  line  in 
which  many  of  them  had  good  skill  and  long  experience.  Their  non- 
appearance in  skilled  occupations  in  iron  and  steel  plants  may  be 
partly  because  their  entrance  in  large  numbers  into  these  plants 
was  to  replace  immigrant  and  foreign-born  laborers  who  were  doing 
mainly  semiskilled  and  unskilled  work,  partly  because  of  the  smaQ 
proportion  of  skilled  work  in  the  industry,  partly  because  some 
organized  crafts  in  the  industry  were  opposed  to  the  employment  of 
Negroes  in  their  trade,  and  partly  because  not  a  great  many  Negroes 
possessed  necessary  training  and  experience  to  qualify  for  skilled  work 
in  this  field. 

Taking  such  comparisons  of  skilled  units  in  the  foundries  which 
were  studied,  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  average  number  of 
hours  worked  per  w^eek  than  white  workers  in  3  units  and  a  higher 
average  earnings  per  hour  in  1  unit.  In  3  units  Negro  workers 
showed  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than  white 
workers  and  in  5  units  a  lower  average  of  earnings  per  hour  than 
white  workers. 

In  the  one  unit  of  comparison  of  skilled  occupations  in  slaughtering 
and  meat-packing  establishments  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  aver- 
age number  of  hours  worked  per  week  and  a  higher  average  of  earnings 
per  hour  than  white  workers.  In  the  one  unit  of  comparison  of  skilled 
occupations  in  the  iron  and  steel  industry  the  Negro  workers  showed 
a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  and  lower  average 
earnings  per  hour  than  w^hite  workers. 

Turning  to  units  of  comparison  for  occupations  classed  as  semi- 
skilled, in  5  foundries  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  average  num- 
ber of  hours  worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  3  units  and  a 
higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in  3  units.  Negro  workers  made  a 
lower    average  number    of   hours  worked    than   white  workers   in 

2  units  and  a  lower  average  earnings  per  hour  in  2  units.  In 
slaughtering  and  meat  packing,  in  1  unit  of  comparison  of  semi- 
skilled occupations,  Negro  workers  made  a  higher  average  number  of 
hours  worked  and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  than  white 
workers. 

In  automobile  establishments  in  6  units  of  comparison  of  semi- 
skilled occupations,  Negro  workers  showed  the  same  average  nuniber 
of  hours  worked  as  white  workmen  and  the  same  average  earnings 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAK.  43 

per  hour.  In  the  coke  ovens  establishment,  Negro  workers  showed 
a  higher  average  number  of  hours  than  white  workers  in  1  unit  and 
a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in  1  unit;  a  lower  average  num- 
ber of  hours  worked  than  white  workers  in  1  unit  and  a  lower  average 
earnings  per  hour  in  2  units.  In  iron  and  steel  plants  Negro  workers 
showed  a  higher  average  number  of  hours  worked  than  white 
workers  in  3  units  of  semiskilled  occupations  and  a  higher  average 
earnings  per  hour  in  2  units;  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  than 
white  workers  in  1  unit  and  a  lower  average  earnings  per  hour  in 
1  unit.  Negro  workers  showed  the  same  average  number  of  hours 
worked  per  week  as  white  workers  in  6  units  and  the  same  average 
earnings  per  Aveek  in  7  units.  In  glass  manufacture  Negro  workers 
showed  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked  in  1  unit  of  semi- 
skilled occupations  and  a  lower  average  hourly  earnings  in  1  unit. 

Taking  the  semiskilled  group  as  a  whole  for  all  establishments  em- 
ploying 5  or  more  Negro  workers  and  5  or  more  white  workers,  there  are 
25  units  of  comparison.  These  show  that  Negro  workers  had  a  higher 
average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  8 
units  and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in  8  units,  about 
one-third  in  each.  Negro  workers  showed  a  lower  average  number  of 
hours  worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  5  units  and  a  lower 
average  earnings  per  hour  in  5  units,  about  one-fourth  in  each.  Negro 
workers  showed  the  same  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week 
as  white  workers  in  12  units  and  the  same  average  earnings  per  hour 
in  12  units. 

The  occupations  classed  as  unskilled  furnish  the  largest  number  of 
units  of  comparison — 52  in  aU.  In  the  foundries  Negro  workers 
showed  a  higher  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than 
white  workers  in  six  units  and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in 
five  units.  They  showed  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked 
per  week  than  white  workers  in  two  units,  a  lower  average  earnings 
per  hour  in  four  miits,  and  the  same  average  number  of  hours  worked 
per  week  as  white  workei-s  in  one  unit.  In  slaughtering  and  meat 
packing  Negro  workers  made  a  higher  average  number  of  hours 
worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  four  units  of  unskilled  occu- 
pations and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in  two  units.  They 
showed  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked  than  white  workers 
in  four  units  and  lower  average  earnings  per  hour  in  six  units. 

In  automobile  establishments  Negro  workers  showed  the  same 
average  number  of  hours  worked  as  white  workers  and  the  same 
average  earnings  per  week  in  seven  units  of  unskilled  occupations. 
At  the  coke  ovens  plant  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  average 
number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  seven 
units  and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in  five  units.  They 
showed  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than 
white  workers  in  four  units  and  lower  average  earnings  per  hour 
than  white  workers  in  six  units. 

In  the  iron  and  steel  industries  Negro  workers  made  a  higher 
average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  tour 
units  and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  in  six  units  of  unskilled 
occupations.  They  showed  a  lower  average  number  of  hours  worked 
per  week  than  white  workers  in  six  units  and  lower  average  earn- 
mgs  per  week  than  white  workers  in  four  units.  They  showed  the 
same  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  as  white  workers  in 


44  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

five  units  and  the  same  average  earnings  p>er  week  as  white  workers 
in  five  units.  In  the  glass  manufacturing  estabhshment  Negro 
workers  showed  a  higher  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week 
than  white  workers  and  a  lower  average  earnings  per  week  than 
white  workers  in  two  units  of  comparison  of  unsfilled  occupations. 

Taking  the  52  units  of  comparison  of  unskilled  occupations  as  a 
whole,  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  average  number  of  hoHrs 
worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  23  units,  nearly  one-haK  of 
the  total,  and  a  higher  average  earnings  per  week  in  18  units,  a  little 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number.  They  showed  a  lower 
average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  16 
units,  or  a  little  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  number,  and  a  lower 
average  earnings  per  hour  in  22  units  or  about  two-fifths  of  the 
total  number.  Negro  workers  showed  the  same  average  number  of 
hours  worked  per  week  as  white  workers  in  13  units,  or  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  number,  and  the  same  average  earnings  per  week 
week  as  white  workers  in  12  units  of  unskilled  occupations,  or  less 
than  one-fourth  of  the  total  number. 

To  sum  up  the  comparison  of  unskilled  units,  Negro  workers 
showed  a  higher  average  number  of  hours  than  white  workers  in 
nearly  one-half  of  the  total  number  of  units  of  comparison,  a  lower 
average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  in  a  little  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  total  number,  and  the  same  average  number  of  hours 
worked  per  week  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  total  number  of  units. 
The  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  average  earnings  per  week  than 
white  workers  in  a  little  more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number  of 
units;  a  lower  average  weekly  earnings  in  about  two-fifths  of  the 
total  number  of  units,  and  the  same  average  earnings  per  week  as 
white  workers  in  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  number  of  units  of 
white  and  Negro  workers  compared  in  unskilled  occupations. 

Taking  the  total  85  units  of  comparison  for  the  three  classifications 
of  skilled,  semiskilled,  and  imskdlled  occupations  in  all  the  establish- 
ments, the  Negro  workers  showed  a  higher  average  number  of  hours 
worked  per  week  than  white  workers  in  35  miits,  or  considerably 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number  of  imits;  a  lower  average 
number  of  hours  worked  per  week  in  25  units,  or  less  than  one-third, 
and  the  same  average  number  of  hours  worked  per  week  as  white 
workers  in  25  units,  or  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  units  of  com- 
parison. 

Negro  workers  showed  higher  average  earnings  per  hour  than 
white  workers  in  28  units,  or  about  one- third  of  the  total  number  of 
units  of  comparison  in  the  three  classes  of  occupations;  they  showed 
lower  average  earnings  per  week  in  33  units,  or  considerably  more 
than  one- third  of  the  total;  and  the  same  average  earnings  per  week 
in  24  units,  or  somewhat  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  number  of 
units  of  comparison  in  all  the  occupations  listed. 

The  figures  in  detail  of  Table  II,  showing  classification  of  occu- 
pations, the  number  of  white  and  Negro  employees,  and  the  average 
number  of  hours  of  work  per  week  and  the  average  earnings  per  week 
and  per  hour  of  white  and  Negro  workers  in  the  specified  occupations 
follows: 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


45 


Table  II. — Comparative  table  of  "average  hours  of  work''  and  "average  earnings"  of 
male  white  and  Negro  employees  engaged  in  specified  occupations  of  six  basic  indus- 
tries—1918-19. 

[S,  skilled;  S-S,  semiskilled;  Un-S,  unskilled.] 


Occupation. 


FOUNDRY  (iron  AND 

steel). 

Carpenters 

Furnace  men 

Grinders 

Laborers 

MillwTights 

Holders 

Core  makers 

Chippers 

Electric  welders 

Grinders 

Laborers 

do 

Holders 

Core  makers 

Holders' 

do.i 

Laborers 

Holders 

Carpenters 

Casting  chippers . . . . 

Casting  cleaners 

Core-room  helpers.. . 

Craters 

Cupola  helpers 

Floor  molders 

Foundry  helpers 

Helpers 

Janitors 

Laborers 

Oven  tenders 

Sweepers 

Yardmen 

Chippers 

Cub  molders 

Cupola  men 

Japanners 

Laborers 

Holders 

Holders'  apprentices 

Holders'  helpers 

Shake-out  men 

SLAUGHTERING  AND 
MEAT  PACKING. 


Backers 

Brinze  trimmers . . . 

Caul  pullers 

Droppers  (hoist).. . 

Fell  beaters 

Gutters 

Headers 

Knockers 

Laborers 

Leg  breakers 

Pritchers-up 

Rumpers 

Rump  sawyers 

Splitters 

Switchers-on  rail . . . 

Truckers 

Beef  casings: 

Gut  runners 

Laborers 

Hachinemen . . . 

Strippers 


Kind 
of  occu- 
pation 


S-S.. 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 
Un-S 

S 

S-S.. 

s 

S-S.. 

S 

S-S.. 
Un-S 
Un-S 

S 

S 

s 

s 

Un-S 
s 

s-s.. 

S-S.. 
Un-S 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 

s 

S-S.. 
Un-S 
Un-S 
Un-S 
S-S.. 
Un-S 
Un-S 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 
Un-S 

s 

Un-S 
S-S.. 
S-S.. 


s 

Un-S 

S 

s 

s 

s 

Un-S 

S 

Un-S. 

S 

S 

S 

Un-S 
S-S.. 


S 

Un-S 
S-S.. 
S 


Number  of  em- 
ployees. 


White.    Negro, 


1 

1 

11 

16 

78 

233 

1 

12 

11 

7 

10 

3 

1 

2 

5 

29 

59 

42 

35 

140 

38 

24 

24 

29 

24 

16 

8 

62 

69 

33 

35 

45 

2 

."> 

4 

0 

32 

6 

6 

26 

1 

1 

7 

24 

11 

12 

17 

6 

6 

3 

5 

40 

19 

2 

2 

26 

10 

2 

1 

17 

3 

1 

8 

2 

4 

3 

1 

37 

7 

.54 

3 

2 

6 

16 

13 

1 

6 

Average  num- 
ber of  hours 
worked  per 
week. 


White.   Negro, 


59.00 
67.75 
40.65 
48.55 
58.75 
52.75 
54.30 
43.30 
57.30 
48.50 
58.30 
68.20 
51.50 
47.70 
49.20 
50.80 
48.40 
47.90 
50.40 
38.10 
40.30 
35.30 
42.  50 
35.20 
40.80 
31.00 
42.70 
50.00 
43.00 
43.10 
45.50 
51.00 
2  60.25 
58.50 
65.00 
2  58.  .50 
2  56.  30 
2  50.  50 
2  62.50 
2  64.80 
2  37.50 


68.20 
67.50 
64.50 
67.50 
74.00 
67.50 
51.20 
68.50 
68.90 
67.50 
64.00 
67.90 
67.50 
67.50 
79.50 
55.50 

70.90 
64.20 
74.60 
67.50 


38.00 
62.00 
45.40 
46.95 
58.  25 
48.15 
56.00 
53.00 
57.00 
44.90 
58.70 
68.65 
47.20 
55.60 
53.30 
50.85 
43.30 
45.40 
48.10 
48.40 
50.60 
40.00 
28.50 
52.90 
37.60 
41.90 
52.20 
44.80 
43.00 
51.50 
55. 90 
51.00 
2  65.00 
56.80 
62.60 
2  58.  50 
2  63. 05 
2  39. 65 
2  55. 40 
2  54.25 
2  33.35 


71.50 
67.50 
54.80 
65.50 
74.00 
67.70 
59.80 
68.50 
70.60 
62.90 
67.50 
69.80 
68.00 
67.50 
69.00 
63.90 

67.50 
71.50 
67.50 
69.50 


Average  earn- 
ings per  week. 


White.    Negro 


$23.60 
28.79 
15.49 
17.41 
26.44 
30.22 
28.44 
22.98 
38.63 
27.39 
24.70 
23.96 
25.23 
31.12 
28.53 
28.71 
24.91 
28.47 
26.29 
14.97 
15.21 
12.05 
17.56 
13.83 
25.38 
11.78 
17.27 
18.24 
17.74 
20.39 
14.50 
16.95 
2  31. 85 
27.19 
31.00 
2  32. 74 
2  23. 18 
2  35. 89 
2  25.00 
2  29.12 
2  37. 21 


49.44 
30. 04 
31.92 
29.03 
32.93 
33.75 
29.17 
32.54 
27.57 
32.07 
27.52 
45.18 
33.75 
53.67 
34.19 
23.87 

36.85 
25.68 
32.08 
30.72 


$15.20 
26.47 
17.71 
19.08 
24.76 
24.88 
30.38 
25.18 
39.90 
24.08 
24.54 
23.56 
22.09 
29.24 
30.99 
27.78 
21.79 
24.35 
23.71 
19.10 
20.82 
14.87 
9.23 
22.77 
21.54 
15.76 
20.43 
15.33 
18.  75 
20.07 
19.02 
12.67 
2  47. 50 
28.34 
27.71 
2  32.  85 
2  25. 98 
2  29. 19 
2  26.  88 
2  26. 31 
2  34.63 


51.84 
30.04 
27.10 
28.18 
32.93 
33.88 
34.06 
31.85 
28.24 
29.88 
29.03 
35.93 
34.00 
53.67 
30.95 
27.48 

35.10 
28.59 
29.03 
31.63 


Average  earn- 
ings per  hour. 


White.    Negro, 


0.4000 
.4249 
.3811 
.3585 
.4500 
.5728 
.5237 
.5307 
.6742 
.5647 
.4237 
.3513 
.4899 
.6524 
.5799 
.5652 
.5147 
.5944 
.5216 
.3929 
.3774 
.3414 
.4132 
.3929 
.6221 
.3800 
.4044 
.36^8 
.4126 
.4731 
.3187 
.3324 
.5287 
.4648 
.4769 
.5597 
.4117 
.7107 
.4000 
.4494 
.9922 


.7249 
.4450 
.4949 
.4301 
.4450 
.5000 
.5697 
.4750 
.4001 
.4751 
4300 
.6654 
.5000 
.7951 
.4301 
.4301 

.5197 
.4000 
.4300 
.4551 


»  PJfferwt  types  of  molders, 


SO.  4000 
.4269 
.3900 
.4063 
.4250 
.5167 
.5425 
.  4751 
.7000 
.5363 
.4181 
.3432 
.4680 
.5259 
.5814 
.5463 
.5032 
.5363 
.4929 
.3946 
.4115 
.3717 
.3239 
.4304 
.5729 
.3761 
.3914 
.3422 
.4360 
.3897 
.3403 
.2484 
.7308 
.4990 
.4427 
.5615 
.4121 
.7362 
.4851 
.48-50 
1.0383 


.7264 
.4450 
.4945 
.4302 
.4450 
.5004 
.5696 
.4650 
.4000 
.  4827 
.  4301 
.5148 
.5000 
.7951 
.4485 
.4300 

.5200 
.3999 
.4301 
,4551 


i  Compiled  on  a  piecework  basis, 


46 


THE    NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 


Table  II. — Comparative  table  of  "average  hours  of  loork'"  and  "average  earnings"  of 
male  ivhite  and  Negro  employees  engaged  in  specified  occupations  of  six  basic  indus- 
tries— 1918-19 — Continued. 

[S,  skilled;  S-S,  semiskUled;  Un-S,  unskilled.] 


Average  num- 

Number of  em- 

ber  of  hours 

Average  earn- 

Average earn- 

Estab- 
lish- 
ment 

Kind 

plo> 

ees. 

worked  per 

ings  per  week. 

ings  per  hour. 

Occupation. 

of  occu- 
pation. 

week. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

SLAUGHTERING  AND 

MEAT  PACKING — COn. 

6 

Dry  salt: 

Dippers 

S-S... 
S-S... 
Un-S. 
Un-S. 
Un-S. 
Un-S  . 

1 

2 

3 
5 
5 

1 
1 
1 
2 
5 
5 

66.50 
70.90 
56. 30 
52.20 
62.90 
64.70 

46.  30 
51.30 
67.00 
58. 30 
63.90 
.59. 90 

$28.60 
33.05 
23.37 
22.70 
27.02 
26.85 

$19.88 
22.02 
28.81 
25.05 
27.09 
24.83 

$0.  4301 
.4298 
.4151 
.4349 
.4296 
.4150 

$0.4294 

Graders  . 

.4292 

.4300 

Packers 

.4297 

Pilers 

.4239 

Rubbers 

.4145 

Truckers 

Un-S  . 

12 

12 

65.50 

61.30 

2*1.20 

24.53 

.4000 

.4002 

Hog  heads: 

_ 

Laborers 

Un-S  . 

3 

4 

57.20 

68.00 

22.87 

27.20 

.3998 

.4000 

Skinheads 

S 

1 

1 

61.10 

61.10 

27.20 

27.20 

.4452 

.  4452 

Hog  killing: 

Laborers 

Un-S. 

24 

32 

72.30 

f)2. 30 

28.94 

24.92 

.4003 

.4000 

Shave  sides 

S 

1 

2 

57.40 

57.40 

26.10 

26.10 

.  4547 

.4547 

Snatchers 

s 

1 

1 

97.00 

97.00 

44.59 

44.72 

.4597 

.  46ia 

Sausage-making:    •" 

Laborers 

Un-S. 

3ii 

9 

47.80 

69.20 

19.12 

27.67 

.4000 

.3999 

7 

Beef  killing: 

Backers 

S 

S 

2 
2 

2 
2 

66.00 
66. 00 

66.00 
()6.00 

52.20 
31.  (« 

52.20 
31.68 

.7909 
.4800 

.7909 

Fell  beaters 

.4800 

Fell  cutters 

S 

o 

1 

59.80 

66.00 

33.60 

.37.08 

.5619 

..5618 

Foot  skinners . . . 

S 

3 

2 

62.30 

43.00 

30.  26 

20.68 

.4857 

.4809 

Gullet  raisers 

S-S... 

1 

2 

.53. 50 

65.80 

24.54 

31.18 

.4587 

.4739 

Gutters 

S 

S 

s 

2 
1 
2 

2 
6 
2 

66.00 
65.00 
66.00 

64.50 
64.20 
66.00 

36.00 
40.18 
33.48 

35.00 
39.76 
33.48 

.  5455 
.6181 
.50/3 

.5426 

Headers    . 

.6193 

Knockers 

.5073 

Laborers 

Un-S  . 

20 

18 

56.20 

.54.80 

24.43 

23.83 

.4347 

.4349 

Leg  breakers 

S 

4 

fi 

46.40 

62.  50 

24.10 

32.48 

.5194 

.5»7 

Rimip  sawyers. . 

s 

3 

3 

47.30 

65.  80 

25.75 

35.89 

.5444 

.5454 

Splitters 

s 

1 

3 

66.00 

66.00 

57.24 

57.24 

.8673 

.8673 

Repair  department: 

Steamfltters.. .'. . 

s 

52 

13 

65.70 

72.60 

37.68 

41.76 

.5735 

.5752 

8 

Canning  department 
(bacon): 

Butchers 

S-S... 

3 

U 

57.70 

56.90 

25.89 

25.83 

.4487 

.4540 

Laborers 

Un-S. 

100 

84 

58.40 

59.10 

25.21 

25.45 

.4317 

.4306 

Nailers 

S-S... 

41 

2 

56.30 

51.50 

24.85 

22.80 

.4414 

.4427 

9 

Beef  coolers: 

Knifemen 

S-S... 

14 

13 

64.80 

67.80 

27.33 

29.11 

.4218 

.4294 

Laborers 

Un-S. 

20 

34 

58.70 

59.90 

23.41 

23.88 

.3988 

.3987 

Pieceworkers 

S 

3 

4 

61.30 

47.90 

48.00 

30.83 

.7830 

.6436 

AUTOMOBILES. 

10 

Boiler  room 

S-S... 
S-S... 

6 
25 

4 
1 

50.00 
50.00 

50.00 
50.00 

22.57 
30.00 

22.57 
22.80 

.4514 
.6000 

.4514 

Connecting  rod  de- 

.4560 

partment. 

Enamel  rubbers 

S-S... 

16 

4 

50.00 

50.00 

35. 75 

24.75 

.7150 

.49.50 

Lathe  department . . 

S-S . . . 

60 

1 

50.00 

50.00 

30.00 

30.00 

.6000 

.6000 

Machine  shop 

S-S... 

8 

1 

50.00 

50.00 

30.00 

30.00 

.6000 

.6000 

Motor  assembling . . . 

S-S... 

30 

1 

50.00 

50.00 

38.75 

38.75 

.7750 

.7750 

Piston  department. . 

S-S... 

30 

1 

50.00 

50.00 

30.00 

30.00 

.6000 

.6000 

Sand-blast  room 

I'n-S  . 

9 

2 

50.00 

50.00 

33.00 

33.00 

.6600 

.6600 

Stock  tracers 

Un-S. 

15 

4 

50.00 

50.00 

20.79 

20.79 

.4158 

.4158 

11 

Core  makers 

S 

6 

2 

55.00 

55.00 

33. 55 

33.55 

.6100 

.6100 

do 

S-S... 
S-S... 
Un-S. 

25 
22 

128 

25 
45 
136 

55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

28. 60 
26.40 
24.20 

28.60 
26.40 
24.20 

.5200 
.4800 
.4400 

.5200 

.4800 

Inside  laborers 

.4400 

Un-S. 
Un-S. 

20 
73 

109 
14 

55.00 
55.00 

55.00 
55.00 

23.10 
26.40 

23.10 
26.40 

.4200 
.4800 

.4200 

Stock  handlers 

.4800 

Truck  drivers 

S-S-. 

19 

3 

55.00 

55.00 

26.40 

26.40 

.4800 

.4800 

Truckers 

S-S.. 
Un-S 
S-S.. 

24 
8 
54 

134 
12 
15 

55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

55.00 
55.00 
55.00 

23.10 
26.40 
33.00 

23.10 
26.40 
33.00 

.4200 
.4800 
.6000 

.4200 

12 

.4800 

Machine  molders 

.6000 

Un-S  . 
S-S.. 

10 
25 

4 
25 

55.00 
55.00 

55.00 
55.00 

26.40 
33.00 

26.40 
33.00 

.4800 
.6000 

.4800 

Mold  rammers 

.6000 

Molders 

s 

Un-S  . 
Un-S  . 
Un-S . 
S-S... 

6 

10 

80 

50 

100 

3 

20 
40 
65 
60 

55.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50,00 

55.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

44.00 
22.50 
22.50 
22.50 
22.50 

44.00 
22.50 
22.50 
22.50 
22.50 

.8000 
.4500 
.4500 
.4500 
.4500 

.8000 

13 

Janitors 

.4500 

Laborers 

.4500 

Sweepers 

.4500 

Truckers 

.4500 

THE    ISTEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE    WORLD  WAR. 


47 


Table  II. — Comparative  table  of  '^average  hours  of  ivork"  and  ''average  earnings"  of 
male  tvkite  and  Negro  employee*  engaged  in  specified  occupations  of  six  basic  indus- 
tries—191S-19~Contimied. 

[S,  skilled;  S-S,  semiskilled;  Un-S,  unskilled.] 


Occupation. 


Kind 
of  occu- 
pation. 


Number  of  em- 
ployees. 


White.   Negro 


Average  num- 
ber of  hours 
worked  per 
week. 


White.   Negro 


Average  earn- 
ings per  week. 


White.    Negro, 


Average  earn- 
ings per  hour. 


White.    Negro 


COKE  OVENS.3 

Battery-door  hoisters 
Battery-house  labor- 
ers. 

Battery  laborers 

By-product  labor 

Coal  unloaders 

Coke  loaders 

Crane  engineers 

Door  cleaners 

Dryermen 

Firemen 

Foremen 

Gas  tenders 

Laborers 

Larr3mien 

Lidsmen 

Luttermen 

Batchers 

Pencilmen 

Pushers 

Salt  wheelers 

Standpipe  men 

Sulphate  laborers . . . 
Water  tenders 

IKON  AND  STEEL  AND 
THEIR  PRODUCTS. 

Transportation: 

Switchmen 

Pfate  mill: 

Ctndersnappers  . 

Hookers 

Laborers 

Pushers 

Scrapmen 

Shear  helpers . . . 
Blast  furnace: 

Cinder  laborers.. 

First  helpers 

Handymen 

Keepers,  furnace 

Laborers 

Larrycar  helper. 

Larrycar  opera^ 
tors. 

Stockhouse  la- 
borers. 

Gas  makers 

Laborers 

Do 

Do 

Car  checkers .... 

Furnacemen 

Inspectors 

Laborers 

Machine  opera- 
tors. 

Spring  formers.. 

Assemblers 

Laborers 

Machine  hands. . 

Maintenance 

Picklers  and 
sharers. 

Piercers 


S-S.. 
Un-S, 

Un-S, 
Un-S, 
Un-S  , 
Un-S, 

S 

Un-S, 
Un-S, 
Un-S, 

S 

Un-S. 
Un-S, 
S-S.. 
Un-S , 
Un-S , 
Un-S  , 
Un-S  , 
S-S... 
Un-S. 
Un-S . 
Un-S . 
S-S . . , 


Un-S. 
Un-S. 
Un-S. 
Un-S  . 
Un-S  . 
Un-S. 

Un-S  . 
S-S... 
Un-S. 
S 

Un-S. 
Un-S. 

S-S... 

Un-S. 

S-S... 
Un-S  . 
Un-S  . 
S-S... 
Un-S  . 
Un-S  , 
S-S... 
Un-S  , 
S-S... 

S-S... 
S-S... 
Un-S. 

S 

S-S... 
S-S... 

S-S... 


20 

1 

2 

5 

149 

5 

5 

31 

12 

30 

12 

6 

5 

30 

3 


3 
2 
17 
5 
12 
22 

36 

21 

1 

18 
121 
35 
22 


1 

4 

212 

53 

2 

8 

15 

12 

21 

21 
74 
19 
145 
55 
16 


10 

2 

146 

10 

1 
11 

2 
13 

3 

4 
1 
20 
1 
20 
13 


3 144.90 
3  161.K) 

3 150.30 
3 139.60 
3 163.20 
3  142.60 
3 1.56.00 
3 165.90 
3  151.70 
3 180.00 
3  156.00 
3  15.S.10 
3 149.80 
3  108.50 
3  160.70 
3  1,52.20 
3 148.00 
3  142.50 
3  1.58..30 
3 133.30 
3 160.70 
3 140.90 
3 175.00 


74.35 

78.00 
66.00 
67.85 
73. 40 
74.20 
77.55 

72.35 
69.75 
78.00 
73.75 
61.50 
73.10 
62.60 

54.00 

67.00 
44.60 
81.55 
85.85 
62.25 
67.70 
61.40 
60.95 
55.65 

63.05 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

50.00 


3  131.30 
3 150.00 

3 156.50 
3 149.50 

163.80 
3 167.50 
3 155.00 

143.00 
3  161.70 
3 1.52.70 
3 168.00 
3 153.20 
3 143.00 
3 155.20 
3 1.56.20 
3 1.57.60 
3 144.00 
3 1.54.90 
3 167..50 
3  134.00 
3 144.60 
3  164.00 
3 180.00 


72. 40 

60.00 
68.00 
70.00 
75.80 
74.45 
71.05 

64.00 
61.90 
73.80 
75.00 
62.65 
62.00 
63.00 


69.70 
46.50 
69.55 
91.70 
50.00 
62.75 
61.40 
61.50 
48.40 

37.55 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 
50.00 

50.00 


3$71.12 
3  77. 25 


3  65. 73 
3  SO.  32 
3  68. 62 
3  96. 30 
3  78. 38 
3  73.01 
3  87. 50 
3  98. 58 
3  80.10 
3  76. 55 
3 .53. 17 
3  77.36 
3  73. 44 
3  69.81 
'3  66. 35 
3  77. 70 
3  63. 29 
3  77.21 
3  66.30 
3  94. 27 


41.56 

39.06 
31.44 
31.51 
51.72 
51.99 
52.00 

35.52 
34.14 
45.05 
40.73 
30.04 
35.  75 
34.78 


48.85  1     25.91 


24.74 
■18.18 
33.99 
43.51 
29.13 
33.86 
30.71 
2.5.62 
35.35 

54.19 
22.50 
20.00 
35.00 
22.50 
22.50 

22.50 


3$64.17 
3  70. 76 

3  73. 04 
3  70. 70 
3  75.58 
3  85. 52 
3  92. 75 
3  67.72 
3  77. 03 
3  74.24 
3 104.43 
3  77.41 
3  79. 08 
3  76.08 
3  75. 07 
3  75. 90 
3  68. 04 
3  72.92 
3  82. 16 
3  72.18 
3  69. 92 
3  77.24 
3  97.12 


40.47 

30.04 
32.16 
30.13 
51.68 
51.33 
50.47 

31.42 
30.31 
42.25 
41.20 
29.43 
30.41 
33.08 

22.85 

25.59 
16.38 
35.57 
45.29 
19. 95 
31.60 
32.69 
26.83 
25.40 

33.00 
22.50 
20.00 
35.00 
22.50 
22.50 

22.50 


$0. 4908 
.4777 

.4582 
.4708 
.4922 
.4812 
.6173 
.4638 
.4813 
.4861 
.6319 
.5066 
.5110 
.4900 
.4814 
.  4825 
.4717 
.4656 
.4908 
.4748 
.4807 
.4736 
.5387 


.5590 

.5007 
.4764 
.4644 
.7046 
.7007 
.6705 

.4909 
.4895 
.5775 
.5523 
.4657 
.4890 
.5555 

.4798 

.3693 
.4076 
.4168 
.5068 
.4680 
.5001 
.5002 
.4203 
.6352 

.8595 
.4500 
.4000 
.7000 
.4500 
.4500 

.4500 


.  4887 
.4717 

.  4668  ■ 

.4729 

.4614 

.5106 

.5984 

.4736 

.4764 

.4862 

.6216 

.5053 

.5530 

.4902 

.4806 

.4816 

.4725 

.4708 

.4905 

.5387 

.4835 

.4710 

.5396 


.5589 

.5057 
.4726 
.4304 
.6811 
.6894 
.7103 

.4909 
.4896 
.5725 
.5493 
.4697 
.  4905 
.5250 

.4678 

.3671 
.3523 
.5114 
.4939 
.3990 
.5036 
.5324 
.4363 
.5248 


.4500 
.4000 
.7000 
.4500 
.4500 

.4500 


3  Average  number  of  hours  and  average  earnings  under  this  coke-oven  schedule  were  available  only  for  a 
period  of  13  days,  and  it  was  impracticable,  therefore,  to  try  to  estimate  the  weekly  hours  and  earnings. 


48 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


Table  II. — Comparative  table  of  ^'average  hours  of  work"  and  ^'average  earnings"  of 
male  white  and  Negro  employees  engaged  in  specified  occupations  of  six  basic  indus- 
tries— 1918-19 — Continued. 

[S,  skilled;  S-S,  semiskilled;  Un-S,  unskilled.] 


Estab- 

Kind 

Number  of  em- 
ployees. 

Average  niun- 
ber  of  hours 
worked  per 

Average  earn- 
ings per  week. 

Average  earn- 
ings per  hour. 

lish- 
ment 

Occupation. 

of  occu- 
pation. 

week. 

No. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Ne^o. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

IRON  AND  STEEL  AND 
THEIR  PRODUCTS— 

continued. 

18 

Blast  furnace— Con. 
Punch    press 

hands. 
Punch   press 

helpers. 
Stock  handlers.. 
Hammerm  e  n's 

helpers. 
Laborers   (raw 

material). 

Sweepers 

Truckers 

Yardmen 

Nutmakers 

Do     

S-S... 
Un-S. 

16 

46 

1 
17 

50.00 
50.00 

50.00 
50.00 

$22.50 
20.00 

$22.50 
20.00 

$0. 4.500 
.4000 

$0.4500 
.4000 

19 

Un-S  . 

S-S... 

13 
113 

8 
14 

50.00 
41.05 

50.00 
41.15 

20.00 
21.35 

20.00 
21.72 

.4000 
.5201 

.4000 
.5278 

Un-S. 

57 

23 

52.60 

49.25 

21.33 

19.93 

.4055 

.4047 

20 
21 

Un-S. 

S-S... 
Un-S  . 
S-S... 
Un-S. 
S-S... 
S-S... 
S-S... 
Un-S. 
S-S... 
S-S... 
Un-S. 

2 
5 
6 
3 
1 
7 
8 
29 
47 
77 
15 
28 

7 

18 

47 

2 

1 

2 

1 

6 

28 

13 

IS 

7 

47.00 
49.25 
55.30 
53.50 
53.50 
53. 50 
53.  .50 
53.00 
53.00 
.53, 00 
53.00 
53.00 

53.60 
50.00 
62.45 
53.50 
48.  .50 
53.  ,50 
35.00 
.53.00 
53.00 
.53.00 
.53. 00 
53.00 

15.82 
15.95 
17.98 
25.47 
24.08 
24.08 
19.32 
22.79 
22.79 
22.79 
22.79 
22.79 

16.84 
17.08 
19.39 
25.47 
18.68 
24.08 
20.63 
22.79 
22.79 
22.79 
22.79 
22.79 

.3367 
.3238 
.3251 
.  4750 
.4500 
.4500 
.3611 
.4300 
.4300 
.4300 
.4300 
.4300 

.3142 
.3416 
.3105 
.4750 
.3852 

.4500 

22 

Trimmers 

Coring     

.,5894 
.4300 

.4300 

Furnace 

.4300 
.4300 

Stock  room 

.4300 

MANUFACTURING 
GLASS. 

23 

Un-S. 
S-S... 
S-S... 
Un-S. 

30 
27 
10 
36 

16 

11 

2 

6 

48.80 
53.20 
56.70 
60.10 

49.60 
60.70 
60.60 
69.40 

14.75 
16.72 
22.65 
18.52 

14.09 
15.08 
21.00 
20.21 

.3023 
.3143 
.399» 
.3082 

.2841 

.2974 

Producermen 

Yard  laborers 

.3465 
.2912 

THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 


49 


Comparative  table  of  "average  hours  of  work"  and  "average  earnings"  of  female  white 
and  Negro  employees  engaged  in  specified  occupations  in  the  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing industry . 


Occupation. 

Kind 

of 
occu- 
pation. 

Number  of 
employees. 

Average 

number  of 

tiours  worked 

per  week.i 

Average 
earnings 
per  week. 

Average 
earnings 
per  hour. 

Total  "regu- 
lar" hours 
per  week. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

White. 

Negro. 

HOG-HEAD      PREPA- 
RATION. 

Washers  and  trim- 
mers. 

Un-S . 

7 

7 

57.4 

57.4 

$19. 50 

$19.  50 

$0.  3397 

$0.3397 

48 

48 

SAUSAGE  MANUFAC- 
TURING. 

Casings  workers 

Sausage-tying 

workers. 
Stuffing-room 

workers. 

Un-S . 
Un-S . 

Un-S. 

9 
6 

20 

12 

1 

13 

48.8 
47.8 

50.5 

49.1 
46.6 

46.7 

15.09 
14.48 

16.87 

14.96 
14.22 

'  16. 04 

.3092 
.3029 

.3341 

.3047 
.3052 

.3436 

48 
48 

48 

48 
48 

48 

CANNING       DEPART- 
MENT (BACON). 

Bacon  wipers 

Can  oilers 

Un-S . 
Un-S . 
Un-S . 
Un-S. 
Un-S . 
Un-S . 
Un-S . 

2 

9 

9 

36 

22 

2? 

8 
2 
2 

19 
4 
3 

12 

56.0 
57.1 
52.3 
53.0 
55.2 
50.6 
51.2 

55.1 
59.5 
36.0 
57.3 
51.5 
56.2 
56.5 

17.69 
18.11 
34.11 
16.78 
19.41 
16.09 
16.20 

17.41 

18.87 
22.36 
18.16 
17.65 
17.80 
17.86 

.3159 
.3172 
.6522 
.3166 
.3516 
.3180 
.3164 

.3160 
.3171 
.6211 
.3169 
.3427 
.3167 
3161 

48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 
48 

48 
48 
48 
48 

Can  painters 

Can  wipers 

Scalers 

48 

Solder  droppers 

Wrappers 

48 
48 

I  The  number  of  hours  in  excess  of  48  should  be  regarded  as  ' '  overtime. 
1989°— 21 4 


50 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


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THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


51 


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^WW2m2tMH2 


CHAPTER  VII. 
STATISTICS  ON  THE  MEAT-PACKING  AND  STEEL  INDUSTRIES. 

One  of  the  evidences  of  the  growing  importance  of  Negroes  in 
northern  industries  is  shown  by  the  increasing  percentage  of  Negroes 
employed  in  one  or  two  of  the  large  meat-packing  establishments  in 
Chicago  diu-ing  1916,  1917,  and  1918,  and  a  steel  company  of  Indiana 
Harbor  for  all  the  months  of  1918. 

In  the  first  meat-packing  company,  beginning  July  13,  1918,  and 
running  through  to  I^ebruary  28,  1919,  it  is  sho^vn  that  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  period  there  were  4,734  white  employees,  or  81.89  per 
cent,  and  1,047  Negro  employees,  or  18.11  per  cent  of  the  labor  force. 
There  were  796  white  women,  or  87.19  per  cent,  and  117  Negro 
women,  or  12.81  per  cent.  At  the  close  of  the  period  there  were  4,925 
white  employees,  or  83.38  per  cent,  and  982  Negro  employees,  or  16.62 
per  cent  of  the  total  number,  while  there  were  821  white  women  con- 
stituting 89.24  per  cenit,  and  99  Negro  women,  or  10.76  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  of  employees.  These  figures  indicate  the  importance 
in  numbers  and  percentage  of  Negro  workers  in  the  slaughtering 
and  meat-packing  industry,  for  the  total  number  of  white  em- 
ployees at  the  beginning  of  the  period  was  81.89  per  cent  and 
at  the  close  83.38  per  cent  and  the  number  of  Negro  employees  at  the 
beginnmg  of  the  period  was  18.11  per  cent  and  at  the  close  16.62  per 
cent.  This  shows  that  there  was  a  slight  reduction  in  the  percentage  of 
Negro  employees,  both  male  and  female,  during  the  period,  but  that 
the  reduction  was  very  light,  being  slightly  more  than  1.5  per  cent 
for  Negro  men  and  2  per  cent  for  Negro  women. 

The  table  following  shows  the  details  of  the  variation  by  weeks : 

52 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAJl. 


53 


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54 


THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 


The  figures  of  the  second  meat-packing  company  give  a  very 
large  showing  of  the  increasing  use  of  Negro  employees  in  this  plant, 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  industry.  At  the  beginning  of  the  period 
(January,  1916,  to  January,  1919,  or  a  period  of  159  weeks),  the 
plant  was  employing  a  total  of  8,361  employees.  Of  these,  8,050,  or 
96.28  per  cent,  were  white  and  311,  or  3.72  per  cent,  were  colored. 
The  full  figures  cover  the  period  just  preceding  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  into  the  war,  the  entire  period  during  which  our 
country  was  at  war,  and  approximately  the  three  months  following 
the  signing  of  the  armistice.  The  total  number  of  employees  of  this 
firm  gradually  increased  imtil  it  reached  the  mark  of  16,989  em- 
ployees during  the  last  week  in  November,  1918,  and  17,434  during 
the  third  week  of  December,  1918.  The  number  of  colored  em- 
ployees, however,  .increased  more  rapidly  in  proportion  than  the 
number  of  white  employees,  reaching  a  maximum  of  24.09  per  cent 
of  the  total  in  March,  1918,  and  ranging  from  that  time  on  between 
17  and  21  per  cent  of  the  total.  At  the  close  of  the  period,  Feb- 
ruary, 1919,  the  firm  was  employing  13,928  workers,  of  whom  11,123, 
or  79.86  per  cent,  were  white  employees  and  2,805,  or  20.14  per  cent, 
were  colored  employees.  This  shows  a  proportionate  increase,  nearly 
fivefold,  in  the  number  of  Negro  employees. 

Table  V. — Number  of  employees  of  the  second  meat-packing  company,  distributed  by 
color,  for  a  period  of  159  successive  weeks,  January,  1916,  to  January,  1919.  (See 
graphs  follouing.) 


Total 
number 
of  em- 
ployees, 
white 
and  Ne- 
gro, 
male 
and  fe- 
male. 

Total  number  of  employees, 
distributed  bj'  color. 

Week 
No. 

Total 
number 
of  em- 
ployees, 
white 
and  Ne- 
gro, 
male 
and  fe- 
male. 

Total  number  of  employees, 
distributed  by  color. 

Week 
No. 

White. 

Per 
cent. 

Negro. 

Per 
cent. 

White. 

Per 
cent. 

Negro. 

Per 
cent. 

3.. 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

3« 

8,361 
7,989 
8,008 
7,941 
7,824 
7,904 
7,889 
8,084 
8,037 
8,213 
8,330 
8,141 
8,123 
7,971 
7,982 
7,766 
7,414 
7,158 
7,479 
7,449 
7,399 
7,421 
7,705 
7,696 
7,811 
7,937 
8,062 
8,306 
8,081 
8,123 
8,514 
8,681 
8,884 
8,959 
8,737 
9,134 

8,050 
7,683 
7,699 
7,569 
7,470 
7,527 
7,476 
7,673 
7,637 
7,824 
7,938 
7,795 
7,766 
7,632 
7,591 
7,363 
6,941 
6,604 
6,947 
6,935 
6,900 
6,907 
7,121 
7,101 
7,184 
7,270 
7,329 
7,532 
7,309 
7,312 
7,495 
7,657 
7,831 
7,837 
7,654 
7,830 

%.28 
%.17 
96.14 
95.32 
95.48 
95.23 
94.76 
94.92 
95.02 
95.26 
95.29 
95.75 
95.61 
95.75 
95.10 
94.81 
93.62 
92.26 
92.89 
93.10 
93.26 
93.07 
92.42 
92.27 
91.97 
91.60 
90.91 
90.68 
90.45 
90.02 
88.03 
88.20 
88.15 
87.48 
87.60 
85.72 

311 
306 
309 
372 
354 
377 
413 
411 
400 
389 
392 
346 
357 
339 
391 
403 
473 
554 
532 
514 
499 
514 
584 
595 
627 
667 
733 
774 
772 
811 
1,019 
1,024 
1,053 
1,122 
1,0S3 
1,304 

3.72 
3.83 
3.86 
4.68 
4.52 
4.77 
5.24 
5.08 
4.98 
4.74 
4.71 
4.25 
4.39 
4.25 
4.90 
5.19 
6.38 
7.74 
7.11 
6.90 
6.74 
6.93 
7.58 
7.73 
8.03 
8.40 
9.09 
9.32 
9.55 
9.98 
11.97 
11.80 
11.85 
12.52 
12.40 
14.28 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

9,316 
9,180 
9,425 
9, 620' 
9,872 
10,084 
10, 129 
10,229 
10,394 
10,630 
10, 749 
10,980 
10,582 
10, 135 
10,284 
10, 173 
10,255 
10,428 
10,473 
10,188 
10, 175 
10,075 
10, 102 
10, 155 
10, 145 
10,036 
10, 142 
10,223 
10, 115 
10, 264 
10,533 
10,646 
10,640 
10,416 
10,452 
10,181 

8,007 
7,927 
8,101 
8,240 
8,344 
8,637 
8,673 
8,686 
8,830 
8,977 
9,057 
9,070 
8,802 
8,450 
8,579 
8,495 
8,598 
8,700 
8,746 
8,614 
8,525 
8,423 
8,469 
8,503 
8,510 
8,372 
8,464 
8,512 
8,243 
8,384 
8,673 
8,697 
8,722 
8,442 
8,504 
8,199 

85.95 
86.35 
85.95 
85.65 
84.52 
85.65 
85.63 
84.92 
84.95 
84.45 
84.26 
82.60 
83.18 
83.37 
83.42 
83.51 
83.84 
83.43 
83.51 
84.55 
83.78 
83.60 
83.83 
83.73 
83.88 
83.41 
83.45 
83.26 
81.49 
81.68 
82.34 
81.69 
81.97 
81.05 
81.36 
80.53 

1,309 
1,253 
1,324 
1,380 
1,528 
1,447 
1,456 
1,543 
1,564 
1,653 
1,692 
1,910 
1,780 
1,685 
1,705 
1,678 
1,657 
1,728 
1,727 
1,574 
1,650 
1,652 
1,633 
1,652 
1,635 
1,664 
1,678 
1,711 
1,872 
1,880 
1,860 
1,949 
1,918 
1,974 
1,948 
1,982 

14.05 
13.65 
14.05 
14.35 
15.48 
14.35 
14.37 
15.08 
15.05 
15.  55 
15.74 
17.40 
16.82 
16.63 
16.58 
16.49 
16.16 
16.57 
16.49 
15.45 
16.22 
16.40 
16.17 
16.27 
16.12 
16.59 
16.55 
16.74 
18.51 
18.32 
17.66 
18.31 
18.03 
18.95 
18.64 
19.47 

THE    NEGEO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR, 


55 


Table  Y .^Number  of  employees  of  the  second  meat-packing  company,  distributed  by 
color,  for  a  period  of  159  successive  weeks,  Jamcary,  1916,  to  January,  1919.  (See 
graphs  following) — ^Continued. 


Total 

Total  numbe 

r  of  employes. 

Total 

Total  number 

of  employees. 

number 

distributed  by  color. 

number 

distributed  by  color. 

of  em- 
ployees, 

of  em- 
ployees, 

Week 

white 

Week 

white 

No. 

and  Ne- 

No. 

and  Ne- 

gro, 
male 

White. 

Per 
cent. 

Negro. 

Per 
cent. 

gro, 
male 

White. 

Per 
cent. 

Negro. 

Per 
cent. 

and  fe- 

and fe- 

male. 

male. 

7? 

10,385 

8,312 

80.04 

2,073 

19.96 

117 

12,885 

10,395 

80.68 

2,490 

19.32 

74 

10, 353 

8,295 

80.12 

2,058 

19.88 

118 

13,  359 

10, 628 

79.56 

2,731 

20.44 

75 

10, 360 

8,402 

81.10 

1,958 

18.90 

119 

13, 498 

11,002 

81.51 

2,496 

18.49 

76 

10,  534 

8,442 

80.  14 

2,092 

19.86 

120 

14, 134 

11,200 

79.24 

2,934 

20.76 

77 

10,  465 

8,2S9 

79.  21 

2,176 

20.79 

121 

14,672 

11, 765 

80.19 

2,907 

19.81 

78 

10, 705 

8,498 

79.38 

2,207 

20.62 

122 

14,688 

11,719 

79.79 

2,969 

'    20.21 

79 

10,  679 

8,401 

78.67 

2,278 

21.33 

123 

14,420 

11,717 

81.26 

2,703 

18.74 

80 

10,  522 

8,170 

77.65 

2,352 

22.35 

124 

14,519 

11,706 

80.63 

2,813 

19.37 

81 

10, 653 

8,460 

79.41 

2,193 

20.59 

125 

14, 657 

11,719 

79.95 

2,938 

20.05 

82 

10, 653 

8,535 

80.12 

2,118 

19.88 

126 

14,905 

12,064 

80.94 

2,841 

19.06 

83 

10, 648 

8,436 

79.23 

2,212 

20.77 

127 

15,040 

12,376 

82.29 

2,664 

17.71 

84 

10, 821 

8,546 

78.98 

2,275 

21.02 

128 

15, 201 

12, 155 

79.96 

3,046 

20.04 

85 

10,748 

8,491 

79.00 

2,257 

21.00 

129 

15,045 

11,951 

79.44 

3,094 

20.56 

86 

10,745 

8,387 

78.05 

2,358 

21.95 

130 

15, 533 

12,668 

81.56 

2,865 

18.44 

87 

11,375 

8,825 

77.58 

2,550 

22.42 

131 

15,711 

12,936 

82.34 

2,775 

17.66 

88 

11,462 

8,961 

78.18 

2,501 

21.82 

132 

15, 336 

12,513 

81.59 

2,823 

18.41 

89 

11,633 

8,902 

76.52 

2,731 

23.48 

133 

15,  249 

12,215 

80.10 

3,034 

19.90 

90 

11,842 

9,280 

78.36 

2,562 

21.64 

134 

15,  326 

12,416 

81.01 

2,910 

18.99 

91 

11,856 

9,409 

79.36 

2,447 

20.64 

135 

15, 606 

12, 895 

82.63 

2,711 

17.37 

92 

11,S69 

9,384 

79.06 

2,485 

20.94 

136 

15,247 

12,312 

80.75 

2,935 

19.25 

93 

12, 203 

9,794 

80.26 

2,409 

19.74 

137 

14,695 

12,042 

81.95 

2,653 

18.05 

94 

12, 638 

10,117 

80. 05 

2,521 

19.95 

138 

15,063 

11,920 

79.13 

3,143 

20.87 

95 

12,846 

10,338 

80.  48 

2,508 

19.52 

139 

15, 481 

12, 666 

81.82 

2,815 

18.18 

96 

13,019 

10,611 

81.  50 

2,408 

18.50 

140 

15, 628 

12,842 

82.17 

2,786 

17.83 

97 

12, 889 

10, 380 

80.53 

2,509 

19.47 

141 

15, 554 

12, 768 

82.09 

2,786 

17.91 

98 

13, 305 

10, 903 

81.95 

2,402 

18.05 

142 

15, 181 

12,194 

80.32 

2,987 

19.68 

99 

13, 778 

11, 157 

80.98 

2,621 

19.02 

143 

14,494 

11,652 

80.39 

2,842 

19.61 

100 

13, 726 

11,118 

81.00 

2, 608 

19.00 

144 

14, 598 

11,601 

79.47 

2,997 

20.53 

101 

14,064 

11,129 

79.13 

2,935 

20.87 

145 

15, 530 

12, 352 

79.54 

3,178 

20.46 

102 

13,  259 

10, 185 

76.82 

3,fl74 

23.18 

146 

15,940 

12,765 

80.08 

3,175 

19.92 

103 

13,654 

10, 787 

79.00 

2,867 

21.00 

147 

16,346 

13, 145 

80.  42 

3,201 

19.58 

104 

14,018 

11,043 

78.78 

2,975 

21.22 

148 

16,  730 

13,568 

81.10 

3,162 

18.90 

105 

13, 492 

10,748 

79.66 

2,744 

20.34 

149 

16, 989 

13,779 

81.11 

3,210 

18.89 

106 

13, 878 

10, 809 

77.89 

3,069 

22.11 

150 

17, 148 

13, 740 

80.13 

3,408 

19.87 

107 

13, 665 

10,681 

78.16 

2,984 

21.  84 

151 

17, 222 

13,851 

80.45 

3,371 

19.55 

108 

13, 624 

10, 700 

78.54 

2,924 

21.46 

152 

17,  434 

13, 813 

79.23 

3,621 

20.77 

109 

13, 858 

11, 109 

80.16 

2,749 

19.84 

153 

15,297 

12,386 

80.97 

2,911 

19.03 

110 

13,958 

11,367 

81.44 

2,591 

18.56 

154 

15, 353 

12,325 

80.28 

3,028 

19.72 

Ill 

13, 865 

10,525 

75.91 

3,340 

24.09 

155 

15, 168 

11,883 

78.34 

3,285 

21.66 

112 

14,086 

11,499 

81.63 

2,587 

18.37 

156 

15, 145 

11,747 

77.56 

3,398 

22.44 

113 

14,054 

11,026 

78.45 

3,028 

21.55 

157 

15, 155 

11,851 

78.20 

3,304 

21.80 

114 

13,758 

10,924 

79.40 

2,834 

20.60 

158 

14,565 

11,506 

79.00 

3,059 

21.00 

115 

12,916 

10,351 

80.14 

2,565 

19.86 

159 

13,928 

11,123 

79.86 

2,805 

20.14 

116 

13,397 

10,875 

81.17 

2,522 

18.83 

56 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


The  accompanying  diagrams  show,  graphicaih',  the  percentage  of 
distribution  by  color  of  the  total  number  of  employees  of  this  com- 
pany by  weeks,  from  January,  1916,  to  January,  1919,  and  the  per- 
centage of  white  and  colored  employees  by  weeks  during  this  same 
period. 


u 

30 
40 

to 

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90 

. 

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Ly-r- 

kw^i'^^P'^^r^: T'*--T-vv,:75^^--^^^;r^^ 

w 

mM 

W 

u     '      u          X           10           so           u           »           to           so          m          110           lu          >io          hi          ise        a 
JAN         AF/i           JULY          OCT        ,JM          APfi          JULY          OCT          ^AN           APR          JULY          OCT         ^M 

1^16                                                                I9i7                                                              /m                                  an 

COMPARATIVE    INCREASE    IN    PERCENTAGE    AMONG    WHITE    AND    COLORED    EM- 
PLOYEES IN  ONE  MEAT-PACKING  PLANT  DURING  A  PERIOD  OF  159  WEEKS. 

The  third  piece  of  evidence  came  from  a  steel  company  at  Indiana 
Harbor,  Ind.,  and  shows  the  total  number  and  per  cent  of  w^hite  and 
colored  employees  from  January,  1918,  through  December  of  the  same 
year.  This  shows  a  total,  at  the  begmning  of  the  period,  of  2,020 
employees,  of  which  1,736,  or  85.94  per  cent,  werciwhite,  and  284,  or 
14.06  per  cent,  were  colored.  At  the  close  of  the  period  the  firm  was 
employmg  ^  total  of  2,171  emplo3^ees,  of  which  1,681,  or  77.43  per 
cent,  were  white,  and  490,  or  22.57  per  cent,  were  colored.  The 
number  of  colored  employees  showed  a  steady  increase  over  the 
original  number,  runnmg  as  high  as  538  m  October,  1918,  to  the 
closing  number  at  the  end  of  December,  which  number  showed  a 
considerable  increase  m  total  colored  employees  and  a  corresponding 
increased  percentage  of  the  total  number  of  employees.  Other  dis- 
cussions of  workers  in  iron  and  steel  have  been  given  in  Chapter  VI. 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 


57 


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CHAPTER  VIII. 
NEGRO  LABOR  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  SHIPYARDS. 

The  widespread  demand  for  ships  to  "beat"  the  unlawful  submarine 
warfare  of  the  Germans  led  the  Nation  to  see  that  ships  were  needed 
to  win  the  war.  The  buildino;  of  ships  called  for  labor  of  all  kinds, 
skilled,  semiskilled,  and  miskilled,  and  those  who  responded  to  build 
ships  were  serving  the  cause  no  less  than  those  who  responded  for 
service  in  the  Army.  Durins:  the  war  the  Negroes  showed  their 
patriotism  in  this  particular  fulty  as  they  did  in  others.  In  the  ship- 
yards under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board — 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation — covering  four  shipbuilding  districts 
on  the  Atlantic  coast,  one  on  the  Gulf  coast,  two  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  one  in  the  Great  Lakes  district,  there  were  24,648  Negroes  em- 
ployed during  the  war  and  14,075  employed  up  to  September,  1919, 
following  the  signing  of  the  armistice.  In  the  southern  district  during 
the  war  there  were  11,991  and  for  the  period  after  the  war  5,504;  in 
the  middle  Atlantic  district  there  were  4,506  and  5,223,  respectively; 
in  the  Delaware  River  district,  5,165  and  2,230,  respectively;  in  the 
northern  Atlantic  district,  371  and  297,  respectively:  in  the  Gulf  dis- 
trict, 1,830  and  309,  respectively;  in  the  southern  Pacific  district,  582 
and  399,  respectively;  ni  the  northern  Pacific  district,  176  and  96, 
respectively;  and  in  the  Great  Lakes  district,  27  and  17,  respectively. 
Both  the  numbers  involved  and  the  distribution  of  the  numbers,  both 
during  the  war  and  the  months  following  the  signing  of  the  armistice, 
give  ample  evidence  that  Negroes  played  a  large  part  in  the  building 
of  the  ships.  Unfortunately,  it  has  not  been  feasible  to  secure  the 
figures  of  the  white  workmen  under  the  United  States  vShipping 
Board  for  these  districts. 

We  do  have,  however,  a  full  record  of  the  occupations  in  which 
Negro  workmen  were  engaged.  During  the  war  4,963,  or  about  20.7 
per  cent,  were  engaged  in  occupations  which  may  be  classed  as  skilled 
occupations,  leaving  19,685,  or  about  80  per  cent,  in  unskilled  occu- 
pations, some  of  which  could  probably  be  classed  as  semisKilled  occu- 
pations. After  the  war  3,872,  or  27.47  per  cent,  were  in  skilled  occu- 
pations and  10,203,  or  72.53  per  cent,  in  unskilled  occupations,  some 
of  which  may  be  classed  as  semiskilled.  It  is  significant  that  the 
largest  number  of  Negroes  in  skilled  occupations  both  in  steel  and 
wooden  ship  construction  was  in  the  southern  district,  both  during 
and  after  the  war.  The  second  largest  during  the  war  was  in  the 
Delaware  River  district  and  after  the  war  in  the  middle  Atlantic 
district. 

Negroes  participated  in  46  of  the  55  separate  shipbuilding  occu- 
pations listed  during  the  war  period,  and  in  49  such  occupations 
after  the  war.  In  addition,  dm-ing  the  war  21  occupations  had  less 
than  10  Negroes  employed  and  after  the  war  17  occupations  had  less 
than  10  Negroes  emploj'ed  in  them.  This  "leaves  25  occupations 
with  10  or  more  Negroes  during  the  war  and  22  occupations  with  10 
or  more  Negroes  employed  after  the  war. 

58 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  59 

The  details  are  given  in  full  in  the  accompanying  table,  but  some 
illuminating  comparisons  may  be  made  here.  Durmg  the  war  there 
were  1,464  Negro  carpenters,  225  calkers,  21  chippers  and  calkers,  631 
fasteners,  11  olacksmiths,  102  blacksmiths'  helpers,  36  riggers,  38 
riveters,  22  foremen,  240  drillers  and  reamers,  399  bolters.  These 
all  are  important  skilled  or  semiskilled  occupations  in  the  building 
of  ships.  After  the  war  there  were  only  74  carpenters,  59  calkers,  36 
chippers  and  calkers,  143  fasteners,  7  blacksmiths,  45  blacksmiths' 
helpers,  and  191  reamers  and  drillers.  There  were,  however,  49  rivet- 
ers and  1,116  bolters,  these  occupations  showing  increases. 

The  analysis  of  these  figm'es  indicates  that  in  the  more  highly 
skilled  and  therefore  the  more  highly  paid  occupations  there  has  been 
a  greater  decrease  in  the  number  of  Negroes  in  the  shipyards  than  in 
the  less  skilled  or  semiskilled  occupations,  but  taking  the  skilled  and 
semiskilled  occupations  together,  Negro  workers  held  their  numbers 
and  showed  less  decrease  after  the  war  than  they  did  in  the  unskilled 
occupations,  altogether,  after  the  war.  The  total  decrease  after  the 
war  of  Negroes  in  all  skilled  or  semiskilled  occupations  was  only  20.7 
per  cent,  while  the  total  decrease  after  the  war  of  Negro  workers  in 
the  unskilled  occupations  was  about  48  per  cent,  or  nearly  one-half. 
While  these  figures  show  a  very  decided  decrease  in  the  more  highly 
skilled  occupations,  on  the  whole  they  make  a  favorable  showing  for 
Negro  workmen  m  the  shipbuilding  industry,  both  during  and  after 
the  war. 

Not  only  did  Negroes  enter  the  skilled  and  semiskilled  occupations 
during  the  war  in  large  numbers  but  they  remamed  in  these  occupa- 
tions in  larger  proportions  than  in  the  unskilled  occupations. 

The  following  table  shows  in  detail  the  number  of  Negro  employees 
working  in  skilled  and  unskilled  occupations  at  shipbuilding  plants 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board — Emer- 
gency Fleet  Corporation — during  and  after  the  war  in  the  eight 
principal  shipyard  districts,  durmg  1918  and  1919.  The  skilled  and 
semiskilled  workers  were  not  classified  separately  in  the  available 
record.  The  full  details  showing  number  of  Negroes  employed  in  the 
eight  principal  shipyard  districts  m  specified  occupations  during  and 
after  the  war  are  given  in  the  following  table : 


60 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


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THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


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62  THE   KEGRO   AT   WOEK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 

RECORD-BREAKING  NEGRO  WORKERS. 

How  a  Negro  pile-driver  gained  the  worid's  pile-driving  record  is 
told,  partially  in  his  own  language,  as  follows: 

world's   pile-driving  RECORD   SMASHED. 

Edward   Burwell,  the  Negro   pile-driving   captain  whose  Negro   j 
crew  of  11  men  broke  the  world's  record  in  dnving  piles  on  ship-   i 
way  No.  46  (Philadelphia,  Pa.),  was  asked  how  he  came  to  break  the    • 
standing  record.     Burwell  smiled  and  pointed  to  a  placard  nailed  on 
the  pile-driving  machine.     The  placard  read:  "If  at  first  you  don't 
succeed,  try,  try,  again." 

The  record  prior  to  BurweU's  wonderful  drive  was  165  piles  in  9 
hours.  Burwell  and  his  crew  drove  220  65-foot  piles  in  9  hours  and  5 
minutes,  and  a  good  part  of  the  time  the  crew  worked  in  a  terrific 
downpour  of  rain.  Since  coming  on  the  job  in  January,  1918,  Bur- 
well's  crew  has  driven  4,141  piles  with  a  total  of  241,573  linear  feet. 
The  crew  under  Burwell  is  employed  by  the  Arthur  McMullen  Co. 
This  company  had  the  contract  to  drive  21,434  piles.  Burwell  and 
his  crew  drove  about  20  per  cent  of  this  number. 

"I  went  into  the  pile-driving  business  15  years  ago,"  Burwell  said  in 
speaking  of  his  new  record.  "I  was  never  on  a  job  as  large  as  this  one 
before.  It  was  due  to  rivalry  between  another  Negro  foreman  and 
myself  that  I  made  up  my  mind  to  go  after  the  record  of  165  piles  held 
by  another  company. 

''The  sign  filled  our  crew  with  enthusiasm.  We  decided,  one  night, 
that  a  new  world's  record  would  be  made  on  the  morrow,  and  it  was. 
Of  course,  we  had  our  little  mechanical  troubles,  and  instead  of  fretting 
and  fuming,  the  men  just  glanced  at  the  sign  and  started  in  Avith  re- 
newed vigor  and  the  record  was  smashed." 

Capt.  BunveU  then  produced  the  log  of  the  crew  on  the  day  the 
world's  record  was  made.  It  is  rather  interesting  reading  and  is 
printed  below: 

Piles  driven. 

7  a.  m.  to  8  a.  m 27 

8  a.  m.  to  9  a.  m 23 

(Delay  4^  minutes  due  to  broken  steam  line;  raining  very  hard 

from  8.15  to  10  a.  m.) 

9  a.  m.  to  10  a.  m 28 

10  a.  m.  to  11  a.  m 22 

(Delav  8  minutes  due  to  pile  fall  breaking. ) 

11a.  m."^tol2a.  m 27 

12  noon  to  12.30  p.  m.  (lunch). 

12.30  p.  m.  to  1.30  p.  m 25 

(Heavy  rain  \\'ith  electric  showers  from  1 .25  to  2.50  p.  m. .  and  from 

1.25  to  1.40  p.  m.  air  pressiu'e  dropped  considerably,  which  held 

up  hammer. ) 

1.30  p.  m.  to  2.30  p.  m. 23 

2.30  p.  m.  to  3.30  p.  m 23 

3.30  p.  m.  to  4.35  p.  m 22 

Total,  9  hours  and  5  minutes 220 

Note. — Total  linear  feet  of  piles,  14,260.  Previous  world's  record,  165  piles  ia  9 
hours  and  15  minutes. 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  63 

Of  no  less  interest  is  the  performance  of  a  gang  of  Negro  riveters 
working  at  Sparrows  Point,  Md.,  in  the  plant  of  the  Bethlehem  Steel 
Corporation,  in  breaking  the  world's*  record  for  driving  rivets.  One 
of  t&e  gang,  Charles  Knight,  drove  4,875  three-quarter-inch  rivets  in  a 
9-hour  day.  The  previous  highest  record  was  4,442,  made  by  a 
workman  in  a  Scottish  shipyard.  Mr.  Knight  is  a  highly  respectable 
and  industrious  citizen  of  JBaltimore,  Md.,  and  a  native  of  Virginia. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  FLORIDA  AND  GEORGIA. 

FLORIDA. 

On  July  16,  1918,  Hon.  Sidney  J.  Catts,  governor  of  Florida,  called 
together  representatives  of  Negro  citizens  from  all  parts  of  the  State  at 
Jacksonville,  who,  with  about  1 5  of  Florida 's  most  representative  white 
employers,  met  for  a  dsij  's  conference  on  the  labor  situation  in  the 
State.  After  a  thorough  discussion  the  governor  authorized  the  con- 
ference to  work  out  plans  with  the  representatives  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor  for  the  organization  of  the  State,  county,  and  city 
Negro  w^orkers'  advisory  committees.  The  governor,  as  chairman 
of  the  State  council  of  defense,  accepted  the  honorary  chairmanship 
of  the  committee,  and  with  the  executive  secretary  of  the  council  a 
plan  was  worked  out  so  that  the  colored  members  appointed  on  the 
Negro  workers'  advisor}^  committees  had  white  members  from  the 
county  councils  of  defense  to  act  on  these  committees  as  cooperating 
members.  In  this  way,  in  a  short  time  there  were  developed  these 
cooperative  relationships  between  white  and  colored  representatives 
through  the  Negro  workers'  advisory^  committees  in  26  counties  in 
the  State,  including  the  important  city  centers  such  as  Jacksonville, 
Tampa,  Miami,  and  Pensacola. 

The  following  letters  show  the  spirit  and  action  of  the  council  of 
defense,  the  governor,  and  other  interested  parties : 

State  of  Florida, 

Executive  Chamber, 

Tallahassee,  July  31,  1918. 
Dr.  Geo.  E.  Hatnes, 

Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Dear  Sir:  I  haxe  your  letter  inclosing  list  of  colored  citizens  nominated  at  a  con- 
ference held  in  Jacksonville,  and  also  copy  of  their  constitution. 

I  thank  you  for  the  same  and  will  give  it  my  attention.     I  am  willing  to  cooperate 
with  your  race  in  exery  way  possible. 
With  best  wishes,  I  am 
Yours,  very  truly, 

(Signed)  Sidney  J.  Catts,  Governor. 


State  Council  of  Defense, 
Tallahassee,  Fla.,  October  29,  1918. 
Dr.  Geo.  E.  Haynes, 

Director  of  Negro  Economics,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Dear  Sir:  Yours  of  the  21st  instant,  addressed  to  his  excellency  Gov.  Sidney  J. 
Catts,  relative  to  the  work  of  your  ad\'isory  committee,  together  with  your  request  for 
the  cooperation  of  county  councils  of  defense  has  been  referred  to  me  for  reply. 

Replying,  beg  to  advise  that  at  the  meeting  of  our  advisory  committee  October  25, 
inst.,  this  matter  was  brought  before  the  committee,  and  it  was  agreed  to  give  your 
committee  the  assistance  in  the  capacity  requested. 
Yours,  very  truly, 

(Signed)  H.  S.  Howard. 

'  Executive  Secretary. 

04 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE    WORLD   WAR.  65 

Following  the  State  conference  and  the  appointment  of  the  State 
Negro  workers'  advisory  committee,  upon  the  recommendation  of  a 
number  of  white  and  colored  citizens,  W.  A.  Armwood,  of  Tampa. 
Fla.,  a  graduate  of  the  State  college,  who  had  been  a  successful 
carpenter  and  contractor  and  at  that  time  was  principal  of  the 
colored  public  school  at  Tampa  and  successfully  conducting  a 
drug  business  of  his  own,  was  chosen  as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics 
for  Florida.  He  had  known  many  workmen  in  all  parts  of  the  State 
and  very  soon  was  in  touch  with  them  in  various  districts.  It  was 
due  to  his  untiring  effort  that  many  of  the  activities  of  the  State 
were   developed. 

One  of 'the  first  steps  taken  following  the  organization  of  commit- 
tees was  to  give  Negro  workers  wholesome  advice  about  the  necessity 
of  continued  and  systematic  work  during  the  period  of  the  war  for 
the  production  of  such  commodities  as  were  necessary  to  win  it.  Two 
methods  were  used  for  such  advice :  First,  circular  letters  and  bulle- 
tins were  sent  out  to  the  members  of  the  county  and  city  committees 
toucliing  upon  various  points  for  stimulating  the  morale  and  effi- 
ciency of  workers  in  the  different  localities  of  the  State.  Second, 
a  series  of  mass  meetings  of  white  and  colored  citizens  was  planned 
and  carried  out  in  the  early  fall,  following  the  conference.  The  Di- 
rector of  Negro  Economics  was  present  at  a  number  of  these  meetings 
and  both  white  and  colored  citizens  attended  in  large  numbers. 
There  were  usually  white  and  colored  speakers  before  the  audience 
on  the  same  platform. 

One  significant  service  rendered  by  the  State  Negro  workers'^ 
advisory  committee  was  to  correct  a  misapprehension  and  feeling 
that  was  growing  due  to  the  spread  of  rumor  among  employers  that 
Negro  women  workers  in  large  numbers  were  receiving  governmental 
allotments  from  male  relatives  in  the  Army  and  were  taking  advan- 
tage of  this  money  to  refuse  to  engage  in  any  useful  occupation. 
The  committee  made  a  careful  State-wide  investigation  of  the  facts 
and  found  that  the  rumor  was  groundless.  Wide  publicity  was 
given  to  the  actual  facts  of  the  patriotic  work  being  done  by  colored 
women  throughout  the  State,  and  this  served  to  allay  feeling  and 
friction. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  other  work  carried  out  by  the  com- 
mittee : 

1.  Educational  campaigns  were  carried  out  in  the  26  counties, 
in  various  cities  of  the  State,  at  mass  meetings  and  at  the  regular 
gatherings  of  Negro  churches,  lodges,  and  other  organizations  to 
inform,  Negro  workers  of  the  necessity  of  steady  and  reliable  service 
to  keep  up  production  for  winning  the  war,  to  promote  prosperity, 
and  to  improve  the  relations  between  the  races. 

2.  Cooperation  was  given  to  the  United  States  Employment  Serv- 
ice in  the  securing  and  placement  of  thousands  of  Negro  workers  and 
in  the  placement  of  returning  soldiers. 

3.  Misunderstandings  were  adjusted  through  advisory  conferences 
of  employers  and  employees  and  county  officials.  This  work  was 
carried  on  in  the  case  of  both  individual  workers  and  employers  as 
well  as  organizations,  and  in  this  way  the  stoppage  of  work  was  pre- 
vented. 

1989°— 21 5 


66  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

4.  By  conferences  with  State  and  county  officials  and  cooperation 
with  the  State  council  of  defense,  local  ofncials  were  induced  to  use 
the  good  offices  of  the  Negro  worke^rs'  advisory  committees  in  per- 
suading Negro  workers  to  work  steachly  and  with  enthusiasm.  Tliis 
method  was  found  more  effective  than  the  application  of  compulsory 
labor  regulations  advocated  by  many. 

5.  Working  conditions  were  improved  in  many  plants  voluntarily 
by  employers  after  conferences  and  suggestions  either  from  the 
Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics  or  from  members  of  the  advisory 
committees.  In  most  cases  these  conferences  were  sought  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  employers. 

6.  The  health  conditions  of  Negro  workers  were  improved,  through 
the  advice  to  both  employers  and  workers  on  methods  of  protecting 
their  health.  Advertising  material  and  literature  along  these  lines 
were  given  out. 

7.  Besides  the  cooperation  of  the  State  council  of  defense  and  the 
governor  of  the  State,  as  shown  by  the  preceding  correspondence, 
the  following  organizations  and  agencies  gave  full  support  to  the 
work  in  the  State:  State  Amcultural  and  Mechanical  College  for 
Negroes;  State  Federation  of  Colored  Women's  Clubs;  local  organ- 
izations of  the  Negro  National  Business  League;  local  lodges;  and 
churches  of  the  several  denominations. 

GEORGIA. 

On  August  9,  1918,  a  conference  of  about  75  representative  colored 
men  met  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  in  response  to  an  official  invitation  issued  by 
Hon.  Hugh  M.  Dorsey,  governor  of  the  State,  that  they  assemble  to 
confer  with  representatives  of  the  Department  of  Labor  and  of  the 
State  commission  of  labor  on  matters  relating  to  Negro  labor.  After 
an  all-day  session,  Judge  Price  Gilbert,  .of  the  Supreme  Court  and 
of  the  State  council  of  defense,  met  the  conference  representing  the 
governor  and  the  council  of  defense.  In  the  course  of  an  interesting 
aU-day  session  going  over  the  situation  of  the  State  and  the  plans  of 
the  Department  of  Labor,  the  conference  recommended  and  adopted 
an  outline  of  an  organization  of  the  State,  county,  and  city  Negro 
workers'  advisory  committees  along  lines  of  those  set  up  in  other 
States.  The  report  adopted  by  the  special  committee  contained 
the  following  recommendations: 

We,  your  committee  on  plans  and  work,  beg  leave  to  render  the  follo\nng  report: 

First,  we  recommend  that  a  chairman  be  designated  for  each  county  by  this  body 
and  that  said  chairman  appoint  a  committee  of  nine  from  different  sections  of  said 
county  to  work  with  him  in  coordinating  the  work  of  his  county. 

Second,  that  a  series  of  public  meetings  be  held  in  prominent  places,  such  as  churches, 
lodge  rooms,  etc.,  in  said  counties,  under  the  supervision  of  said  committees  and  that 
said  committees  be  requested  to  in\ite  some  of  the  leading  white  citizens  of  their 
respecti^"e  communities  to  participate  in  said  meetings. 

Thii'd,  we  recommend  plans  for  labor  demonstrations  and  parades  to  be  made  for 
January  1,  1919. 

Fourth,  that  said  county  committee  get  in  touch  with  a  number  of  open  minded, 
patriotic  white  citizens  in  their  respective  communities  to  the  end  that  through  them 
the  general  public  may  be  informed  about  the  doings  of  the  State  Negro  workers' 
advisory  committee. 

Fifth,  as  a  means  of  recruiting  labor  in  the  various  communities  in  our  State,  we 
recommend  (1)  that  laborers  be  guaranteed  protection  as  citizens;  (2)  that  better 
housing  and  samtation  conditions  be  pro  Aided ;  (3)  ample  school  facilities  with  compe- 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  67 

tent  and  well-paid  teachers;  (4)  pay  commensurate  with  services  rendered  for  laborers; 
(5)  better  transportation  and  equal  accommodations  on  the  railroads;  in  short,  make 
labor  satisfied  and  labor  will  remain. 
Respectfully, 

E.  P.  Johnson,  G.  B.  Burney 

H.  A.  RucKER,  H.  R.  Butler, 

J.  P.  Davis,  J.  Q.  Gasset, 

E.  J.  Turner,  Mrs.  Londie  Andrews. 

,  C.  E.  Williams. 

After  the  meeting  of  the  State  Conference  of  Georgia,  Prof.  H.  A. 
Hunt,  principal  of  the  Fort  Valley  High  and  Industrial  School,  was 
appointed  as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  of  the  State.  Associated 
with  liim  as  examiner  in  the  United  States  Employment  Service  for 
activity  over  the  State  was  Mr.  Rufus  P.  Bennett,  who  assisted  the 
Federal  Director  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  and 
Prof.  Hunt  in  many  of  the  difficult  problems  relating  mainly  to 
agricultural  labor  in  this  large  State, 


CHAPTER  X. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  ILLINOIS. 

In  the  early  development  of  the  plans  of  the  department  for  the 
Division  of  Negro  Economics  it  seemed  feasible  that  one  man  should 
advise  on  policies  and  plans  for  one  district  comprising  Michigan  and 
Illinois.  As  the  work  developed  this  district  was  divided  into  the 
two  States,  Michigan  and  Illinois. 

At  the  beginning  in  June,  1918,  Mr,  Forrester  B.  Washington,  of 
Detroit,  Mich.,  was  appointed  as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  in 
the  district  comprising  Michigan  and  Illinois.  It  had  been  estimated 
by  the  department  that  about  30,000  Negro  migrants  had  moved  into 
Detroit  and  that  probably  50,000  had  come  into  the  Chicago  district 
within  the  period  during  1917  and  1918.  Mr.  Washington,  trained 
at  Tufts  College  and  the  New  York  School  of  Philantliropy,  had  had 
tliree  years'  experience  and  unusual  success  as  executive  secretary'  of 
the  Detroit  Urban  League  in  cooperation  with  the  Employers'  Asso- 
ciation of  Detroit  in  handling  the  industrial  problems  growing  out  of 
the  influx  of  the  thousands  of  Negro  newcomers. 

During  July  and  August,  he  veiy  successfully  dealt  with  these 
problems  of  his  district,  which  centered  mainly  at  Detroit  and  Chi- 
cago. About  September  1,  Michigan  and  Illinois  were  made  sepa- 
rate districts  and  Mr.  Washington  was  transferred  to  Chicago  and 
began  the  intensive  development  of  the  work  in  Illinois.  He  began 
with  a  study  of  the  communities  of  the  State  where  large  numbers  of 
Negroes  resided  and  arranged  for  a  State  conference,  which  was  held 
Monday,  September  30,  1918,  at  Springfield,  in  the  old  historic  San- 
gamon County  courthouse,  so  well  known  in  relation  to  the  revered 
memory  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  Delegates  representing  Negro  work- 
ers, whiite  employers,  and  white  workers  were  present  from  14  points 
in  the  State.  They  spent  a  day  in  discussing  general  conditions  and 
adopted  the  form  of  organization  of  a  State  advisory  committee  with 
local  committees.  In  the  weeks  that  followed  the  conference,  Negro 
workers'  advisory  committees  were  formed  in  17  counties  and  9  cities 
throughout  the  State  to  deal  with  the  many  delicate  and  difhcult 
labor  problems.  Some  of  the  results  of  the  activity  under  the  super- 
vision of  Mr.  Washington  are  outlined  in  the  following  pages. 

Dming  sessions  of  the  conference  several  committees  were  ap- 
pointed and  made  reports,  among  them  the  committee  on  general 
conditions,  which  gave  such  a  concrete  review  of  the  relationships 
between  Negro  workers  and  white  workers  and  white  employers  that 
a  greater  part  of  the  report  is  included  as  follows: 

We,  your  committee  on  general  conditions  as  to  labor  and  general  war  work  relating 
to  Negroes  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  beg  leave  to  submit  the  following  report: 

First.  We  find  that  the  city  of  Chicago  is  the  greatest  center  of  Negro  influx  on 
accoimt  of  the  conditions  produced  by  the  war  of  any  community  in  the  State  of 
Illinois;  and  that  the  cities  of  East  St.  Louis,  Cairo,  Springfield,  and  Peoria  follow 
in  their  order.  The  city  of  Decatur  does  not  have  the  same  condition  as  does  the 
cities  above  named,  neither  does  the  city  of  Danville,  nor  Quincy,  as  they  a,re  gov- 

68 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  69 

emed  in  some  degree  by  local  conditions  which  have  to  do  with  only  their  ovra  par- 
ticular vicinities. 

We  find  that  in  the  mining  districts  in  southern  Illinois,  composing  the  counties  of 
St.  Clair,  Perry,  Jackson,  Franklin,  and  Williamson  and  adjacent  counties,  the  con- 
ditions of  the  colored  miners  as  to  housing  and  economic  conditions  are  on  par  with 
those  of  the  white  miners.  In  fact,  all  mining  districts  of  the  State  are  guided  by  the 
mineis'  imion,  and  the  purpose  of  the  leaders  of  the  miners,  and  of  the  mine  owners  as 
well  in  those  districts,  seems  to  have  been  directed  to  the  task  of  winning  the  war  by 
doing  and  giving  effective  service  and  every  effort  has  been  lent  to  neutralizing  the 
opposing  forces  that  both  white  and  colored  workers  may  understand  and  help  each 
other  and  in  this  way  work  for  a  common  piu-pose. 

OTHER   LABOR. 

In  Chicago,  at  the  stockyards,  we  find  that  conditions  are  much  improved  and 
better  relations  created  by  organization.  The  colored  men  and  workers  and  the 
white  brother  in  toil  ha\e  been  brought  together. 

In  the  other  parts  of  Illinois  we  find  that  the  Negi'o  as  a  laborer  is  not  understood. 
The  white  men  have  been  led  to  believe  that  the  Negro  was  his  common  industrial 
enemy  and  as  a  result  some  very  grave  distm-bances  have  taken  place,  such  as  the 
recent  one  at  East  St.  Louis. 

In  many  instances  ill  feelings  have  resulted  in  the  employers  suffering  from  short- 
ages of  effective  workers  and  the  propagandists  of  German  connection  have,  no  doubt, 
seized  upon  this  spirit  of  unrest  to  further  their  wicked  ends  and  many  instances  of 
this  spirit  have  fallen  within  the  knowledge  of  some  of  the  members  of  your  committee. 
Some  employers  have  misunderstood,  in  that  they  had  been  led  to  believe  that  Negroes 
were  not  faithful  nor  yet  effective  workers,  but  that  notion  has  been  pushed  into  the 
discard  and  now,  thanks  to  the  work  of  the  Department  of  Labor  and  the  leaders  of 
the  various  organizations  having  these  matters  at  heart,  Negroes  are  entering  all  the 
avenues  of  endeavor. 

Some  of  the  cities  above  mentioned  are  not  cursed  with  the  bad  conditions  above 
complained  of.  We  are  pleased  to  refer  to  the  city  of  Decatur  as  a  city  where  the  best 
of  relations  exist  between  white  and  colored  people  and  in  the  large  factories  of  that 
city.  They  work  side  by  side  in  harmony,  and  general  helpfulness  results  from  that 
condition. 

In  the  capital  city  of  Illinois  (Springfield)  for  many  years  colored  workers  have  not 
been  given  employment  in  many  of  the  factories;  but,  owing  to  conditions  brought 
about  by  the  war,  a  sign  of  betterment  is  seen.  Now  some  of  the  steam  laundries  are 
finding  colored  workers  a  decided  success.  A  watch  factory  has  increased  its  quota  of 
colored  workers,  but  we  find  that  in  many  of  the  factories  the  closed  door  stands  be- 
tween the  colored  worker  and  employment.  Your  committee  is  driven  to  the  con- 
clusion that  in  many  instances  the  lack  of  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  workers  who 
apply,  the  lack  of  attention  to  duty,  the  lack  of  thrift  and  energetic  effort  is  proving 
the  undoing  of  the  colored  workers. 


We  recommend  that  steps  be  taken  to  educate  both  the  colored  and  white  toiler  to 
the  fact  that  the  interest  of  both  the  white  and. colored  toiler  and  of  then-  employers 
as  well  is  finally  centralized  only  in  the  finished  products  of  their  toil  when  it  is  ready 
for  the  markets  of  the  world.  We  further  recommend  that  an  effort  be  made  to  bring 
the  Negro  workers  of  the  country  into  a  closer  relationship  with  the  employers  of 
labor  of  the  State  of  Illinois  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  various  labor  organizations 
of  this  State  in  order  that  the  interests  of  all  parties,  namely,  white  workers,  colored 
workers,  and  employers  of  labor,  and  the  trade-union  as  a  medium  of  conciliation  and 
arbitration,  may  all  be  conserved,  remembering  at  all  times  that  the  supreme  and 
centralizing  efforts  of  every  American  citizen  should  be,  and  is,  winning  the  war. 

Respectfully  submitted  by  your  committee. 

Geo.  W.  Ford,  Chairman. 
Hugh  Singleton. 

J.  B.  OSBY. 

Geo.  W.  Buckner. 
A.  K.  FooTE. 
Chas.  S.  Gibes. 


70  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURIKG  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

The  situation  in  southwestern  Illinois,  particularly  the  East  St. 
Louis  situation,  was  so  vital  with  the  whole  question  of  Negro  labor 
and  war  production  in  this  territory  that  the  department  soon  found 
it  necessary  to  have  the  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  give  attention 
to  St.  Louis  and  to  territory  in  the  State  of  Missouri  in  further  work 
to  adjust  relations  of  Ncoto  workers  and  white  workers.  Accordinglv, 
at  the  request  of  the  Federal  director  for  Missouri  of  the  United  States 
Employment  Service,  the  department  called  a  conference  of  Negro 
workers,  white  employers,  and  white  workers,  which  was  held  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  December  18,  1918.  An  interesting  incident  in  connec- 
tion with  this  conference  was  that  it  was  held  in  the  Poro  Building, 
a  new  structure  just  completed  by  a  Negro  corporation  of  unusual 
success.  The  conference  was  attended  by  select  delegates  from 
about  12  centers  throughout  the  State  and  its  significance  is  shown 
by  the  program  of  work  attached. 

PROGRAM  OF  WORK  ADOPTED  BY  THE  MISSOURI  CONFERENCE  ON  PROBLEMS  OF  NEGRO 

LABOR,  DECEMBER  18,  1918. 

1.  Race  relations. 

a.  This  committee  should  take  steps  to  n;et  white  and  colored  labor  together  in 
order  to  better  understand  the  ideals  and  ambitions  of  each. 

1.  Negro  labor  leaders  shall  be  urged  to  teach  their  people  that  their 

interests  are  common  Avith  those  of  white  labor. 

2.  \Miite  labor  leaders  shall  be  urged  to  teach  their  people  that  their 

interests  are  common  with  those  of  colored  labor  and  also  instruct 
them  regarding  the  high  standard  of  living  of  Negroes. 

2.  Release  of  Negro  labor. 

a.  Steps  should  be  taken  to  prevent  wholesale  discharge  of  Negroes  in  order  not 
to  cause  race  friction. 

1.  Visits  should  be  made  by  representatives  of  the  local  committee  to 

factories  where  they  seem  to  be  discharging  Negroes  wholesale. 

2.  Visits  should  be  made  by  representatives  of  the  committee  to  factories 

where  large  numbers  of  Negroes  are  employed,  urging  that  the  latter 
be  discharged  only  in  the  same  proportion  and  for  the  same  reason  that 
employees  of  other  races  are  discharged. 

3.  Housing. 

a.  This  committee  vshould  make  plans  to  house  returning  colored  soldiers. 

1.  By  establishing  a  room  registry  for  colored  soldiers  in  the  various 

communities. 

2.  The  Government  shall  be  urged  to  grant  land  to  those  returning  colored 

soldiers  who  desire  to  settle  in  the  agricultural  districts. 
h.  The  local  committee  will  urge  employers  that  they  pro^•ide  their  colored 
employees  with  housing  that  is  sanitary. 

4.  Make  plans  to  create  openings  for  Negroes. 

a.  By  investigating  every  public  construction  program  and  ascertaining  whether 

or  not  Negroes  are  to  be  used. 
h.  By  encouraging  Negroes  to  go  into  business  for  themselves. 

5.  Distribution  of  labor. 

a.  Prevent  unequal  distribution  of  Negroes  through  exchange  of  information  re 
shortage  or  surplus  of  colored  labor  by  committeemen  from  various  localities. 
6.  Cooperate  with  the  nearest  United  States  EmplojTnent  Ser^ice  office. 

6.  Act  as  agency  representing  the  Negro  in  soldiers'  bureaus — about  to  be  established 

by  the  United  States  Government. 

7.  Cooperation  of  agencies. 

This  committee  shall  seek  to  develop  cooperation  in  the  carrying  out  of  its  program 
from — 

a.  Labor  union. 

h.  Philanthropic  agencies. 

c.  Churches. 

d.  Lodges. 

e.  Employers'  organizations. 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 


Yl 


8.  Education. 

a.  Negro. 

1.  Shop  talks  on  efficiency. 

2.  Lectures  in  colored  churches  and  fraternal  organizations  on  efficiency. 

3.  Neighborhood  visits  on  better  living. 

4.  Special  attention  shall  be  paid  to  the  encouragement  of  thrift. 

b.  White  employer. 

1.  Employers  should  be  furnished  \vith  information  re  Negro's  efficiency. 

It  may  be  added  that  local  committees  were  set  up  in  this  State  in 
only  four  places,  as  the '  restriction  of  activities  developed  in  this 
direction  commenced  a  few  weeks  after  this  conference.  It  should  be 
added,  however,  that  Missouri  offers  in  many  places  one  of  the  most 
important  fields  where  Negro  labor  may  be  more  efficient  and  where 
there  is  a  necessity  for  developing  better  miderstanding  between 
white  workers,  white  employers,  and  Negro  workers.  A  large  part 
of  the  unskilled  labor  in  the  industrial  districts  in  St.  Louis  and  some 
mining  and  coal  districts  make  this  matter  of  interest  to  all,  both 
employees  and  employers  in  this  city. 

The  supervisor  of  Negro  ecomomics  for  Illinois,  following  the  State 
conference  at  Springfield,  quickly  lined  up  his  work  with  the  private 
agencies  and  organizations  in  various  parts  of  the  State.  Conse- 
quently each  city  and  county  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee 
was  able  to  bring  to  its  assistance  the  cooperation  of  many  white  and 
colored  citizens;  so  that  despite  subsequent  racial  disturbances  in'Chi- 
cago  it  may  justly  be  said  that  much  friction,  both  in  Chicago  and 
elsewhere,  was  removed  by  this  cordial  effort  of  advisory  committees 
and  local  organizations.  In  fact,  in  three  places — one  of  them  East 
St.  Louis — acute  racial  situations  were  met  and  adjusted  through 
this  means.  One  of  the  first  pieces  of  work  was  to  ascertain  the 
firms  employing  colored  workers,  so  as  to  give  some  substantial  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  they  were  employed.  The  list  included  some 
of  the  largest  firms  in  Illinois,  the  number  of  firms  in  each  locality 
being  as  follows: 


Abingdon  . . . 

Alton 

Aurora 

Bata\da 

Bioomington . 

Cairo 

Canton 

Herrin 


1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

6 

1 

1 

Chicago 89 


Chicago  Heights 5 

Dan\'alle 2 

Decatur 1 

Dixon 1 

East  Moline 2 

East  St.  Louis 12 

Freeport 4 

Granite  City 3 

St.  Louis 2 

Hammond 1 

Harvey 6 

West  Harvey 1 

The  tables  and  discussion  found  elsewhere — giving  experience  of 
Negro  workers  in  industrial  plants,  showing  wages,  conditions,  and 
other  pertinent  facts — include  some  of  these  firms  in  Illinois. 


Hoopston 1 

Indiana  Harbor 1 

Madison 1 

Moline 4 

Morris 1 

Murphysboro 1 

Onarga 1 

Paris 1 

Peoria 6 

Quincy 4 

Rochelle 1 

Rock  Island 3 

Rockford 8 

Rockdale 1 

Granite  City 1 

East  St.  Louis 

Springfield 

Sycamore 

Waukegan 

North  Chicago 


72  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

Of  particular  significance  was  the  work  in  Illinois  of  assisting  in  the 
placement  in  civilian  occupations  the  returning  Negro  soldiers  and 
sailors.  General  cooperation  in  Illinois  in  the  matter  of  caring  for 
these  returning  men  was  well  organized.  Such  organizations  as  the 
Red  Cross,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Jewish 
Welfare  Board,  the  Chicago  Urban  League,  and  many  other  agencies 
cooperated  effectively  and  closely  with  the  United  States  Employ- 
ment Service,  the  supervisor  of  Negro  economics,  and  the  State 
employment  office.  The  State  employment  service  and  the  United 
States  Employment  Service,  immediately  following  the  signing  of  the 
armistice,  adopted  the  plans  of  the  Federal  service  for  meeting  needs 
of  the  returning  soldiers  by  the  establishment  of  placement  bureaus 
with  the  cooperation  of  private  organizations,  some  of  which  are 
named  above.  In  addition  to  the  returning  soldiers,  many  workers 
had  been  released  from  war  industries.  This  complicated  the  labor 
situation  in  Chicago  and  other  j)oints  in  lUinois  in  the  months  follow- 
ing the  signing  of  the  armistice,  and  required  the  most  delicate 
handling  in  the  most  sympathetic  manner.  With  the  hearty  coopera- 
tion of  the  Washington  office  the  plans  went  forward  rapidly,  and 
the  work  was  undertaken  in  the  placement  of  the  10,000  Negro 
soldiers  who  returned  to  Chicago.  In  addition  to  the  central  office, 
a  special  bureau  was  opened  on  the  South  Side  of  Chicago,  in  the 
main  district  containing  large  numbers  of  Negro  residents  in  profes- 
sions and  profitable  enterprises. 

In  conducting  this  special  office,  however,  no  restriction  was  made 
limiting  it  to  the  use  oi  colored  soldiers.  Its  sole  purpose  was  to  put 
the  placement  facilities  within  the  easiest  reach  of  those  whom  it  was 
designed  to  serve.  An  appeal  letter  signed  by  a  central  committee 
representing  a  number  of  welfare  agencies  and  the  Federal  Govern- 
m.ent  was  sent  to  over  5,000  employers  in  Chicago  ur^in^especially 
that  they  give  attention  to  employment  of  members  of  the  Eighth  Illi- 
nois Regiment  just  returned  from  service  overseas.  This  letter  was 
approved  by  the  State  Advisory  Board  of  the  Employment  Service, 
the  executive  committee  of  the  Soldiers'  and  Sailors'  Bureau,  and  the 
Federal  director,  United  States  Employment  Service.  In  addition,  a 
sort  of  flying  scjuadron  of  returning  soldiers  in  uniform  "was  sent 
throughout  tlie  city  to  solicit  opportunities  for  these  men.  The  suc- 
cess of  this  effort  as  a  part  of  the  general  response  may  be  judged  from 
the  fact  that,  although  there  was  rather  an  acute  unemployment 
situation  in  Chicago  at  the  time,  it  was  not  many  weeks  before  the 
situation  had  been  cleared  up  aitd  the  supervisor  reported  that  it  was 
possible  to  say  that  a  job  could  be  found  for  every  man  that  really 
wanted  work.  As  an  example  of  the  activities  in  the  placement  of 
returning  Negro  soldiers,  the  following  figures  for  one  week  are  given: 
Attendance,  468;  registrations,  198;  help  wanted,  152;  referred,  156; 
reported  placed,  114;  transferred,  26. 

Although  the  following  figures  were  included  in  the  report  of  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  the  following  report  of  the  South 
Side  office  during  the  month  of  May,  1918,  is  given,  as  it  had  more 
placements  than  any  other  office  in  Chicago  for  that  month: 

Men. — Attendance,  1,430;  registration,  795;  help  wanted,  824; 
referred,  637;  reported  placed,  570;  transferred,  3. 

In  all  this  work  special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  assistance 
given  by  private  organizations,  especially  the  Chicago  Urban  League, 


THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  73 

which  maintained  an  employment  office  in  cooperation  with  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  and  the  State  employment  service 
throughout  the  period  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  work 
in  the  city  of  Chicago. 

One  of  the  special  forms  of  the  work  in  Illinois  was  to  assist  in  the 
improvement  of  depressing  housing  conditions  in  the  State.  When 
the  plans  of  the  United  States  Homes  Registration  Service  had  devel- 
opea  to  the  point  that  a  field  worker  was  needed  in  this  territory,  the 
supervisor  of  Negro  economics  canvassed  urban  localities  in  Illinois. 
Chicago,  East  St.  Louis,  Springfield,  Quincy,  Alton,  Cairo,  Peoria, 
Bloomington,  Centralia,  Decatur,  Danville,  Jacksonville,  and  Mon- 
mouth were  covered  by  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committees  at 
each  point.  Thi-ough  the  assistance  of  these  committees,  the  field 
agent  of  the  Homes  Registration  Service  and  the  Illinois  supervisor 
of  Negro  economics  formulated  plans  for  a  campaign  on  housing. 
These  plans  suffered  curtailment  due  to  a  change  in  plans  of  the  hous- 
ing bureau. 

As  a  means  of  developing  stability  of  labor  and  thrift  among 
Negro  workers,  a  study  was  made  of  cooperative  store  enter- 
prises, and  the  laws  governing  same.  There  alter  plans  of  organiza- 
tion were  outlined  giving  details  as  to  incorporation,  stock  values,  share 
and  loan  of  capital,  stock  holders'  meetings,  duties  of  boards  of  direc- 
tors, management,  buying  of  goods,  bookkeeping  auditing  of  accounts, 
dividends  and  surplus  earnings,  and  similar  details.  The  results  of 
this  study  were  issued  in  mimeographed  form  and  put  into  the  hands  of 
Negro  workers'  advisory  committeemen  for  State-wide  distribution. 
So  valuable  does  this  outline  seem  that  it  is  given  in  full  as  follows : 

116  North  Dearborn  Street, 

Chicago,  III.,  June  17,  1919. 

[From  the  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  in  Illinois  to  the  Negro  Workers  Advisory  Committee  on  the 

subject  of  cooperative  stores.] 

One  of  the  lines  along  which  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  is  laying  great  em- 
phasis is  that  of  the  development  of  business  enterprises  among  our  people.  Because 
of  the  small  number  of  Negroes  who  handle  any  large  amount  of  capital  the  most  suc- 
cessful business  enterprises  among  colored  people  must  necessarily  be  cooperative. 

I  am  sending  you  to-day  a  brief  outline  of  the  method  of  starting  and  carrying  on  a 
cooperative  store. 

Cooperative  stores  have  been  very  successful  in  a  great  many  places  in  this  country 
and  enormously  successful  in  Europe. 

Already  a  cooperative  store  conducted  by  Negroes  is  on  foot  in  Illinois.  It  is  being 
promoted  by  the  members  of  Butcher  Workmen's  Local  651  of  Chicago. 

It  seems  to  me  that  there  are  enough  colored  people  in  your  community  to  support 
such  a  store. 

Too  mucn  ot  the  money  that  is  being  earned  by  the  colored  group  at  present  remains 
in  their  hands  only  for  a  short  time;  then  goes  to  the  hands  of  others,  usually  foreign 
born  of  short  residence  in  this  country. 

A  cooperative  store  planned  and  carried  on  l^y  Negroes  will  mean  that  a  large  portion 
of  the  money  earned  by  Negroes  will  be  kept  within  the  group. 

Further  information  can  be  obtained  l)y  writing  to  the  Supervisor  of  Negro  Econo- 
mics in  Illinois  or  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  Bulletin 
394  on  cooperative  stores  price  10  cents,  or  to  Mr.  Duncan  McDonald,  secretary- 
treasurer,  Central  States  Cooperative  Society,  Springfield,  111.,  who  has  issued  some 
i^ery  interesting  pamphlets  on  this  subject  at  a  small  cost  of  not  over  5  cents. 
Very  truly,  yours, 

Forrester  B.  WASHmoTON, 
Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics  in  Illinois. 


74  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WiiR. 

HOW  TO  ESTABLISH  AND  CONDUCT  A  COOPERATIVE  STORE. 

Hoit]  to  start. — A  store  should  not  be  started  unless  at  least  100  members  can  be 
secured . 

If  sufficient  interest  is  displayed,  call  a  meeting  to  select  a  committee  of  five  or  seven 
to  solicit  subscribers,  but  accept  no  money  until  you  have  amount  pledged  sufficient 
to  insure  success. 

Amount  and  value  of  stock. — According  to  the  laws  of  Illinois  no  person  can  own  and 
control  more  than  five  shares  of  the  capital  stock  of  such  association.  The  shares  of 
stock  shall  be  not  less  than  five  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  a  share. 
On  account  of  the  prevailing  high  prices,  it  has  been  found  advisable  to  make  the 
shares  of  stock  not  less  than  $10  a  share.  Not  less  than  50  per  cent  of  the  amount  sub- 
scribed should  be  paid  in  at  the  time  the  organization  of  the  store  is  completed. 

Details. — As  soon  as  a  sufficient  amount  has  been  subscribed  (not  less  than  $2,500) 
call  a  meeting  of  all  the  subscribers  and  have  them  elect  a  board  of  directors  for  differ- 
ent periods  of  time,  so  that  at  least  some  will  hold  over.  Do  not  elect  anyone  simply 
because  he  is  a  good  fellow.  Require  whoever  handles  the  funds  to  furnish  a  good 
bond. 

No  member  should  be  allowed  more  than  one  vote,  no  matter  what  his  shares  or 
purchases. 

Share  and  loan  capital. — If  a  sufficient  amount  of  share  capital  is  not  purchased,  a 
store  may  secure  loan  capital  from  members  interested  in  the  success  of  the  institution, 
whose  share  capital  is  paid  in  full,  or  the  accumulated  profits  or  earnings,  usually  called 
dividends  to  help  finance  the  store  after  the  share  capital  subscribed  if  fully  paid. 

Meeting  of  stockholders. — A  meeting  of  stockholders  should  be  held  every  three 
months.  Special  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  board  of  directors  or  by  petition  of 
the  members. 

Duties  of  board  of  directors. — The  board  of  directors  should  meet  once  a  week,  pass 
upon  and  pay  all  bills,  if  correct,  receive  the  report  of  the  manager,  and  transact 
such  other  business  that  comes  within  their  scope. 

Location. — A  good  location  is  essential  to  success.  A  good  building,  not  necessarily 
large,  but  in  a  good  location,  is  much  to  be  preferred,  even  at  a  higher  rental. 

Business  management. — Stores  should  be  conducted  on  a  cash  basis.  Extending 
credit  will  ruin  a  store  and  the  necessity  of  cash  business  should  be  impressed  on  the 
minds  of  all  members. 

Managers. — Next  to  the  loyalty  of  the  members,  a  good  competent  rnanager,  an 
honest  man,  is  the  most  important  asset  to  a  store.  A  technical  education  is  not  neces- 
sary, but  a  knowledge  of  business  cooperation  is.  The  manager  should  be  given  a 
great  deal  of  discretion  in  the  general  supervision  of  the  store.  He  should  turn  over 
to  the  treasurer  or  other  authorized  officer,  at  the  close  of  each  day's  business,  the 
day's  receipts  and  a  statement  showing  the  amount  of  business  for  that  day. 

Employees. — So  far  as  possible  no  immediate  relative  of  the  manager  or  a  niember 
of  the  board  of  directors  should  be  employed  in  any  capacity,  as  it  creates  jealousy 
and  bad  feeling. 

Managers  and  clerks  should  be  paid  good  wages  as  an  incentive  to  do  good  work. 

Buying  a  stock  of  goods. — Do  not  allow  anyone  to  load  your  store  up  with  an  immense 
stock  of  goods  that  can  not  be  turned  over  readily,  as  they  will  become  shopworn  and 
have  to  be  sold  later  on  at  a  loss.  Goods  should  be  turned  over  as  often  as  possible, 
as  the  turnover  is  an  essentially  important  feature  in  making  money.  All  bills  should 
be  discounted  and  paid  promptly.  By  no  means  should  prices  be  cut  and  no  man- 
ager should  be  allowed  to  undersell  the  surrounding  stores.  To  do  so  invites  trouble 
not  only  with  your  competitors,  but  wholesale  houses  as  well. 

Bookkeeping. — Lack  of  a  good  bookkeeping  system  has  been  the  rock  upon  which 
many  a  cooperative  store  has  been  wrecked. 

Banking.— All  money  taken  in  should  be  banked  every  day  except  the  small  amount 
that  is  kept  on  hand  to  take  care  of  the  cash  business.  All  goods  bought  should  be 
paid  for  by  check.     Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  have  an  overdraft  at  the  bank. 

Incorporation. — All  stores  should  incorporate  as  a  matter  of  protection. 

Auditing  accounts. — One  of  the  most  important  features  of  a  successful  cooperative 
enterprise  is  a  correct  auditing  system.  The  books  and  accounts  of  every  store  should 
be  audited  very  carefully  every  three  months,  and  wherever  possible  by  an  expert 
accountant. 

Dividends. — Dividends  in  a  cooperative  store  are  paid,  not  on  the  investment  as  in 
a  privately  owned  concern,  but  on  the  amount  of  purchases  made  by  the  shareholder. 

At  quarterly  or  semiannual  periods,  as  may  be  determined  on,  a  complete  invoice 
should  be  taken,  the  profits  ascertained,  and  after  setting  aside  a  substantial  amount 
for  a  reserve  fund  (anywhere  from  25  to  50  per  cent  of  the  profits)  the  balance  should 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  75 

be  paid  in  diAddends  on  the  basis  of  purchases  during  the  period,  or  credited  to  them 
on  their  account, 

Surplus  earnings. — The  term  "  di\T.dends  "  as  herein  used  is  merely  the  accumulated 
sa^'ings  or  the  surplus  earnings  of  each  member,  which  the  society  is  under  obligations 
to  repay  to  the  individual  at  a  future  date  and  should  be  distinguished  from  dividends 
as  applied  in  the  usual  commercial  transaction  and  in  the  future  the  cooperative 
movement  should  use  the  term  "surplus  earnings"  instead  of  "dividends." 

Further  information. — Further  information  concerning  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance of  cooperative  stores  can  be  obtained  by  ^.vTiting  to  the  Supervisor  of  Negro 
Economics  for  Illinois,  116  North  Dearborn  Street,  Chicago,  or  to  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  Bulletin  394  on  Cooperative  Stores,  price  10  cents, 
or  to  Duncan  McDonald,  secretary-treasurer,  Central  States  Cooperative  Society, 
Springfield,  111,,  who  has  issued  a  very  interesting  pamphlet  on  the  subject,  price 
5  cents  Butcher  Workmen's  Local  651,  4300  State  Street,  Chicago,  has  launched  a 
cooperative  store  \vith  all  colored  officers.  They  would  be  glad  to  give  you  the  benefit 
of  their  experiences. 

Although  there  were  a  number  of  activities  in  the  State,  the  depart- 
ment was  kept  fully  informed  as  to  racial  feeling  in  various  localities 
in  the  State.  Preceding  the  Chicago  riots  in  July,  1919,  regular 
information  had  been  received  through  official  channels  concerning 
existing  conditions.  The  riots  brought  sharply  to  the  attention  of 
the  country  an  acute  racial  situation,  the  intensity  of  which  had  long 
been  observed  as  developing  in  this  district.  Prior  to  July  there  had 
been  sporadic  clashes  in  one  or  two  Illinois  localities  and  the  State 
supervisor  had  officially  reported  these  outbursts.  The  Chicago 
Race  Commission,  as  an  outcome  of  this  disturbance,  gives  strong 
promise  of  some  constructive  effort  for  preventing  such  difficulties 
in  the  future. 

We  may,  then,  summarize  the  activities  and  results  in  Illinois  as 
follows: 

1.  Conferences. — State  conferences  in  Illinois  and  Missouri  resulting  in  exchange 
of  facts  and  better  understanding  between  representatives  of  Negro  workers,  white 
workers  and  white  employers  from  a  number  of  localities  in  the  State,  and  the  adoption 
of  a  plan  of  organization  and  program  of  work  by  means  of  which  definite  activities 
were  undertaken  throughout  the  territory.  These  activities  resulted  in  better  under- 
standing and  adjustment  of  relations  between  these  three  labor  interests. 

2.  (a)  Surveys  and  information  on  Negro  labor  conditions. — Surveys  were  made  of 
500  firms  employing  50  or  more  Negi-oes,  showing  that  approximately  OA^er  50  per 
cent  reported  their  intention  for  retaining  Negro  help.  The  remaining  50  per  cent 
were  noncommittal;  (6)  The  reports  from  14  chairmen  during  the  period  of  activity 
in  Illinois.  June,  1918,  to  July  1,  1919,  indicated  a  growing  scarcity  of  jobs  for  Negroes, 
with  conditions  most  acute  in  Chicago. 

3.  Board  of  managements. — Constant  ad\dce  and  counsel  were  given  to  the  United 
States  Employment  Service  and  the  State  employment  service,  and  assistance  was 
given  to  the  board  of  management  of  the  Soldiers  and  Sailors'  Bureau  and  its  branches. 

4.  Publicity.— {a)  Fifteen  articles  in  daily  newspapers  of  Illinois  for  the  purpose 
of  stimulating  interest  in  and  employment  of  Negro  workers;  (b)  14  special  articles 
for  Negro  press;  (c)  10  addresses  in  public  meetings;  id)  magazine  discussions  of 
unemployment  situation  among  colored  women. 

5.  Placements. — Besides  from  the  usual  hundreds  of  placements  shown  in  work  of 
offices,  a  number  of  special  opportunities  were  secured  for  specially  qualified  Negroes. 
These  are  cited  on  account  of  the  usual  difficulty  in  such  instances. 

6.  Volunteer  work. — (a)  One  thousand  solicitations  of  firms  over  the  telephone  in 
the  interest  of  retiirning  colored  soldiers;  (6)  5,000  appeal  letters  to  Chicago  employ- 
ers, 3  personal  visits  to  Chicago  employers;  (r)  organization  and  direction  of  "flying 
squadron  "  of  retiu-ned  soldiers  to  solicit  positions  for  comrades. 

7.  Returning  colored  soldiers. — (a)  Formation  of  board  of  management;  (6)  appoint- 
ment of  special  solicitor;  (c)  shop  addresses  to  a  total  of  17,000  Chicago  employees  on 
fair  play  in  jobs  for  returning  soldiers. 

8.  Special  investigations. — (a)  There  were  three  special  investigations  invohing 
unions,  race  relations,  and  discrimination  matters;  (6)  investigation  of  industrial  oppor- 
tunities offered  in  other  States,  especially  the  southern  States. 


76  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

9.  Special  conferences. — (a)  President  Chicago  Federation  of  Labor;  (b)  men  of  pub- 
lic works  in  Chicago;  (c)  State  Advisory  Board.  United  States  Dopartment  of  Labor, 
executive  committee  Soldiers'  Bureau,  Assistant  Federal  Director  L'nited  States 
Employment  Service,  superintendent  Soldiers  and  Sailors'  Bureau,  chairman  of 
board  of  management,  representatives  of  churches,  lodges,  women's  organizations. 

10.  Cooperation. — Cooperation  was  had  tliroiigh  the  superA-isor  of  Negro  economics 
and  through  local  Negro  workers'  achnsory  committees  "with,  the  following,  organiza- 
tions: Y.  M.  C.  A..  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  Chicago  Urban  League.  Federation  of  Colored  Wom- 
en's Clubs,  National  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Colored  People,  American 
Federation  of  Labor.  Chambers  of  Commerce,  mayor  of  Cairo,  aldermen  of  Chicago, 
superintendent  of  public  schools,  Springfield;  city  attorney  of  Cairo.  State  auditor 
of  Jacksonville,  and  many  other  organizations  and  public  officials. 

11.  Misrellancous. — (a)  Addres.ses  to  colored  workers  in  industrial  plants,  empha- 
sizing regularity,  punctuality,  and  efficiency,  etc.;  (b)  op])ortunities  for  colored  col- 
lege women;  (c)  opportunities  for  colored  women  in  domestic  work;  {d)  establishment 
of  homes  registration  service. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  MICHIGAN. 

Detroit,  of  course,  is  the  great  industrial  center  of  Michigan,  and 
to  this  pomt  alone  it  was  estimated  that  in  the  two  years  1916-17 
between  25,000  and  30,000  Negro  migrants  came.  The  department 
further  estimated  that  these  Detroit  migrants  came  mamly  from 
Alabama,  Georgia,  Florida,  and  Tennessee.  Reasonable  proportion 
of  migrants  m  accordance  with  the  calls  of  industry  were,  of  course, 
distributed  among  other  Michigan  industrial  cities,  such  as  Kala- 
mazoo, Benton  Harbor,  Flint,  Grand  Rapids,  Saginaw,  Port  Huron, 
and  other  cities  of  equal  or  lesser  importance  in  the  industrial  fabric 
of  Michigan.  The  automobile  mdustry  made  Detroit,  necessarily, 
a  most  unportant  point  of  destination  for  the  Negro  migrants. 

The  United  States  census  recorded  5,741  Negro  inhabitants  of 
Detroit  in  1910,  while  conservative  estimates  at  the  close  of  the  war 
period  placed  the  number  at  35,000.  Such  an  increase  in  Detroit 
and  correspondingly  in  other  Michigan  cities  created  far-reaching 
problems  of  economics  and  made  the  State  of  Michigan  essentially 
one  where  prompt  endeavor  on  the  part  of  the  Department  of  Labor 
ought  to  be  made.  The  Negro  residential  district  of  Detroit  had 
become  crowded,  and  as  the  Negro  population  spread  it  became 
difficult  to  secure  houses  m  the  various  localities.  Naturally,  then, 
there  came  a  tendency  toward  neighborhood  segregation  and  a  result- 
ing sharp  division  between  newcomers  and  the  older  residents. 
These  conditions  called  for  consideration  and  sympathy  on  the  part 
of  every  agency,  public  or  private,  and  m  the  mmd  of  every  person. 

The  pressmg  need  of  Michigan  enterprises  for  laborers  caused  her 
industrial  captains  to  make  theretofore  miheard-of  wage  conditions. 
Aside  from  the  Negro  laborer,  thousands  of  workmen  from  all  other 
parts  of  the  country  and  from  European  cities  soon  found  location 
in  Michigan.  Therefore  the  department  sent  a  Negro  expert  to 
supervise  and  handle,  cooperatively,  the  many  problems  growing  out 
of  the  presence  of  an  unusual  number  of  Negro  workers — skilled, 
semiskilled,  and  miskilled. 

It  seems  pertment  to  make  a  brief  mention  of  some  of  the  agencies 
which  were  fmictionmg  in  economic  and  civic  matters  m  Michigan 
cities  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics. 

The  Michigan  State  labor  department  has  always  been  well  organ- 
ized and  had  been  givmg  its  usual  attention  to  purely  local  matters. 
The  United  States  Employment  Service  of  the  Department  of  Labor 
had  been  well  established  m  Michigan,  and  was  growing  rapidly  in 
its  power  and  capability  to  take  the  proper  initiative  m  fostermg  and 
promotmg  the  welfare  of  workers  whenever  such  workers  came  under 
the  supei^ision  of  the  Government,  particularly  in  regard  to  the  war- 
labor  program  which  included,  in  certain  mstances,  begmning  August 
1,   1918,  the  recruitmg  and  placmg  of  large  numbers  of  workers. 

77 


78 


THE   NEGRO    AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 


No  arrangements  had  been  made,  however,  by  the  United  States 
Emplo3^ment  Service  for  handling  the  unusual  problems  which  grew 
out  of  the  presence  of  30,000  or  more  Negro  newcomers.  Among 
the  private  agencies  which  had  been  doing  laudable  work  in  the 
Detroit. district  there  may  be  mentioned  the  Detroit  Urban  League, 
which  had  been  successfully  active  and  competent  in  handling  the 
problems  of  Negro  labor.  In  this  connection  it  is  interestmg  to  note 
some  early  experience  which  the  Detroit  Urban  League  had. 

Number  of  male  and  female  workers  requested  by  employers  through  the  joint  employment 
office  and  the  Detroit  Urban  League  July  2  to  Dec.  23,  1917.^ 


Laborers 846 

Laborers  (outside) 778 

Truckers  (automobile) 336 

Janitors 225 

Molders 160 

Machinists  (unspecified) 109 

Porters  (unspecified) 102 


Laborers'  helpers. 

Yardmen 

Kitchen  men  and  dishwashers. 

Fiu'nace  tenders 

Mechanics 

Core  makers 

Housemen  and  bell  boys 

Chauffeurs  and  crankmen 

Elevator  men 

Coal  passers  (laborers) 


69 
67 
54 
70 
48 
45 
28 
10 
26 
24 


Metal  carriers 

Tool  makers 

Repair  vacuum  cleaners 

Riveters 

Metal  (unspecified) 

Cutters  ( unspecified ) 

Watchmen 

Assembly  men  (automobile). 

Assembly  men's  helpers 

Farm  (unspecified) 

Block  testers 

Pipe  layers 

Rivet  buckers 

Paper  hangers. 


16 

15 

14 

8 

7 

6 

6 

5 

26 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Miscellaneous  (unspecified) 2,  431 


Total 5,542 


Laimdry  (day) 123 

Maids 45 

Factory  (garment) 32 

Dishwashers 24 

General  housework 25 

Lashers  (theater) 19 


Factory  (cigar). 

Cook 

Office 

Miscellaneous. . 


18 
15 

2 
14 


Total. 


317 


Number  of  Negro  ivorkmen  employed  on  Apr.  27,  1917,  by  firms  ivith  ivhich  Detroit  Urban 

League  had  touch. 


Packard  Motor  Car  Co.  (May  18)...  1, 100 

Buhl  Malleable  Iron  Co 280 

Ford  Motor  Car  Co 200 

Continental  Motor  Car  Co 200 

Aluminum  Castings  Co 150 

Michigan  Steel  Castings  Co 170 

Michigan  Copper  &  Brass  Co 125 

Michigan  Central  Railroad  Co 100 

Micliigan  Malleable  Iron  Co 100 

General  Aluminum  &  Brass  Co 65 

Chalmers  Motor  Car  Co 62 


Detroit  Pressed  Steel  Co 

Hudson  Motor  Car  Co 

Detroit  Stove  Works 

Paige  Detroit  Motor  Car  Co 

Saxon  Motor  Car  Co 

Hupp  Motor  Car  Co 

Detroit  Seamless  Tubes  Co 

Monarch  Foundry 

Michigan  Smelting  &  Refining  Co. 


50 
50 
27 
20 
20 
20 
20 
15 
100 


Total 2,874 


These  data  were  compiled  early  in  1917  and  therefore  do  not  indi- 
cate the  increase  and  pressing  demand  for  Negro  labor  which  existed 
at  the  climax  of  the  war  period.  They  show,  however,  how  the 
demand  began  to  grow  and  how  the  inclusion  of  the  Negro  worker, 
in  larger  numbers  than  ever  before,  secured  his  economic  standing 
in  the  great  industry  of  Michigan. 


1  Reprinted  from  "Negro  Newcomers  of  Detroit,  Mich.,"  by  George  E.  Haynes,  Ph.  D.,  published  by 
Home  Missions  Covmcil,  New  York  City. 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  79 

Such  well-organized  machinery  for  handling  economic  problems 
as  was  found  in  Michigan,  lightaned  the  plans  of  the  department  and 
called  for  a  slightly  different  program  from  that  which  was  to  be  fol- 
lowed in  other  States. 

Forrester  B.  Washington,  who,  as  is  observed  in  the  Illinois  report, 
had  been  first  appointed  by  the  department  as  supervisor  of  Negro 
economics  for  Michigan,  later,  in  June,  1918,  began  work,  with 
headquarters  at  Detroit.  Mr.  Washington  had  been  executive 
secretary  of  the  Detroit  Urban  League  and  had  handled  personally 
more  than  8,000  Negro  workers  during  his  earlier  work  in  Detroit. 
In  the  following  months  of  July,  August,  and  September  Mr.  Wash- 
ington formulated  the  early  plans  for  the  work  of  the  Division  of 
Negro  Economics  in  Michigan.  He  made  a  number  of  surveys  of  labor 
in  Michigan  cities  and,  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 
United  States  Employment  vService,  gave  specific  advice  with  regard 
to,  and  handled  personally,  a  great  number  of  Negro  labor  problems, 
particularly  in  the  matter  of  recruiting.  The  early  Michigan  plans 
called  for  Negro  workers  advisory  committee  formations  in  the 
industrial  district  with  a  supervising  State  committee  of  white  and 
colored  persons. 

Consequently  the  Michigan  program  was  well  formulated  when,  on 
October  1,  1918,  Mr.  Washington  was  transferred  to  Illinois,  being 
succeeded  in  Michigan  by  Dr.  William  Jennifer,  formerly  special  agent 
and  examiner  under  the  United  States  Employment  Service  with 
official  station  at  Washington,  D.  C.  Dr.  Jennifer  entered  upon  the 
work  with  a  background  of  years  of  experience  in  matters  relating 
to  Negroes  in  the  United  States  Bureau  of  the  Census,  where  he  had 
assisted  m  compiling  the  bulletin  known  as  Negro  Population  in  the 
United  States  1790  to  1910.  Dr.  Jennifer  took  his  post  under  the 
Michigan  Federal  director  in  October,  taking  up  the  plan  as  started 
by  Mr.  Washington. 

Dr.  Jennifer  at  once  continued  the  seeking  out  of  representatives 
of  the  industrial  ranks,  professional  men,  educators,  and  churchmen 
for  increased  cooperation  in  Michigan.  His  itinerary  on  this  mission 
included  Ypsilanti,  Aim  Arbor,  Jackson,  Battle  Creek,  Kalamazoo, 
Benton  Harbor,  Niles,  Cassopolis,  Grand  Rapids,  Saginaw,  Bay 
City,  Flint,  Lansing,  Port  Huron,  and  Pontiac.  Later,  similar 
itineraries  made  possible  his  planning  of  the  State  conference  for 
December  14,  1918.  At  that  conference,  which  was  presided  over  by 
the  Federal  director  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service,  the 
committees  on  organization,  plans  of  work,  and  women's  work  made 
their  reports  and  an  open  discussion,  in  which  all  were  invited  to 
take  a  part,  was  had  regarding  the  peculiar  local  problems  of  Michigan 
points.  It  was  mteresting  to  note  that  several  special  experiments 
were  being  made  in  Michigan  respecting  the  efficiency  of  Negro 
women  workers.  This  group  of  workers — ^in  industry  and  in  per- 
sonal and  domestic  service — was  of  rather  large  proportions,  hence 
the  committee  on  women's  work  at  the  Michigan  conference  made  a 
special  report  which  follows. 

EXTRACT  OF  REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  WOMEN'S  WORK. 

Plans  devised  for  changing  industries  from  a  war  basis  to  a  peace  basis,  the  main 
point*being  to  bring  about  this  change  without  throwing  many  out  of  employment. 
1.  See  that  tHe  work  is  the  proper  sort  of  work  for  a  woman  or  girl. 


80  THE    NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD   WAR. 

2.  See  that  conditions  are  suitable — 

(a)  From  the  hygienic  standpoint. 
(6)  From  the  moral  standpoint. 

3.  Standards:  Work  to  secure  the  following: 

(a)  Eight-hour  day. 

(b)  Forty-five  minutes  lunch  hour. 

(c)  Ten  minutes  rest  in  the  morning  and  10  minutes  in  the  afternoon. 

(d)  No  work  between  10  p.  m.  and  (J  a.  m. 

(e)  No  sweatshop  work.  , 

4.  Sanitary  conditions  (ventilation,  lighting,  temperature,  cleanliness): 

(rt)  Such  as  affect  washrooms,  lunch  rooms,  lockers,  toilets. 

5.  Minimize  hazards  connected  with  the  work: 

(«)  Such  as  result  from  fumes,  dust,  chemicals,  dampness,  and  lack  of 
proper  ventilation. 

(b)  Good  en\'ironment. 

(c)  Lifting  not  exceeding  25  pounds. 

(d)  Wages — a  living  wage. 

(e)  Age  limit.     (Conformation  to  child-labor  laws.)     (Education-compulsory 

laws.) 

6.  To  further  promote  our  plans,  we  must  have  a  list  of  industries  in  which  colored 

women  are  employed : 

(a)  Investigate  to  find  out  cause  where  only  white  women  are  employed  aiid 
strive  to  secure  the  employment  also  of  colored  women  where  such 
discrimination  exists. 

7.  Efficiency  should  be  striven  for  in  several  different  ways: 

(a)  Such  as  number  of  hours  service  given  weekly. 

(b)  Quality  of  service  given. 

(c)  Geniality  of  temperament,  pleasing  personality. 

8.  See  if  there  be  segregation  in  the  rest  rooms,  and  in  the  wages.     If  so,  seek  remedy: 

(a)  See  that  in  the  training  schools  the  colored  girl  gets  the  same  advantage 

as  the  white  girl. 
(6)  See  if  there  be  a  chance  for  promotion  of  colored  girls  in  the  factory  or 

work-place  under  consideration. 

(c)  Study  the  class  of  workers  to  which  we  make  appeal. 

(d)  Find  out  the  attitude  of  the  employer  and  employee  each  to  the  other . 

Strive  for  amicable  adjustment  of  differences. 

(e)  Study  how  the  employer  can  be  best  appealed  to  and  reached. 

The  undersigned  committee  accepts  this  outline  as  a  basis  for  work  and  will  organize 
to  put  it  into  operation  in  accordance  Avith  the  needs  of  the  individual  localities. 

Mrs.  Helen  B.  Irvin,  Temporary  Chairman. 

Mrs.  E.  0.  Haskell,  Secretary. 

Mrs.  Maud  Henderson. 

Mrs.  E.  L.  Johnson. 

Mrs.  Mary  E.  McCoy. 

Mrs.  A.  C.  Hafford. 

Mrs.  Mattie  O.  Reed. 

Mrs.  Mattie  L.  Johnson. 

Mrs.  Mrs.  Lucy  L.  Berry. 

Mrs.  Helen  B.  Brown. 

Miss  Ethel  Hensley. 

Miss  O.  L.  Williams. 

Mr.  John  M.  Ragland. 

Inasmuch  as  there  already  existed  in  the  Department  of  Labor  a 
women's  bureau  which  was  handling,  on  a  broad  basis,  policies 
respecting  the  ideals  and  accomplishments  of  women  workers,  the 
plans  of  this  early  Negro  workers'  conference  were  shaped  to  include 
the  needs  and  conditions  of  women  workers  throughout  the  State. 
Out  of  the  conference  there  grew  a  State  Negro  Workers'  Advisory 
Committee,  which  was  the  overhead  organization  for  the  following 
county  and  city  committees:  Bay,  Berrien,  Genesee,  Ingham,  Jack- 
son, Kalamazoo,  Kent,  Muskegon,  Oakland,  Saginaw,  St.  Clair, 
Washtenaw,  Wayne,  and  Calhoun. 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD   WAR.  81 

As  illustative  of  the  kind  of  cooperation  which  the  department  was 
able  to  secure  in  Michigan,  the  interests  represented  at  the  conference 
and  on  the  State  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  are  cited  as 
follows:  The  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  the  State  Federation  of 
Labor,  the  State  Missionary  Society,  union  and  nonunion  labor, 
merchants  and  business  men,  professional  classes,  the  press,  private 
and  social  welfare  agencies  and  governmental  agencies.  All  these 
units  gave  freely  of  their  influence  in  the  matter  of  shaping  plans 
and  policies  for  the  welfare  of  Negro  workers.  Where  there  was  such 
a  community  of  interest  industrial  conditions  and  needs  in  the  matter 
of  racial  adjustments  were  remedied  with  comparative  ease,  for 
reaching  into  any  plan  of  solidarity  of  such  a  nature  there  come  poten- 
tial forces  from  every  unit  in  the  commimity  and  State  and  the  ulti- 
mate successful  results  may  be  anticipated  from  the  very  beginning. 

At  later  dates  the  Michigan  supervisor  visited  practically  every 
important  point  where  Negro  labor  was  involved  throughout  the 
State  and  the  various  county  and  city  committees  were  given  author- 
ity to  carry  for^vard  concrete  plans  in  labor  matters.  One  or  two 
strikes  were  investigated.  The  usual  efforts  in  seeking  and  securing 
placements  for  Negro  soldiers  were  made.  Groups  of  laborers  who 
were  perhaps  on  the  verge  of  striking  were  visited  and  conferred  with, 
and  theu'  employers,  where  practicable,  were  given  departmental 
advice.  Congested  housing  conditions  in  Detroit  and  other  cities 
were  given  such  practical  attention  as  were  possible.  Extraordinary 
efforts  were  made  in  seeking  placements  at  plants  for  Negro  women. 
A  number  of  mass  meetings  for  creating  better  sentiment  and  high 
morale  were  held  at  strategic  points.  In  pressing  cases  of  placements, 
telephone  inquiries  were  made  direct  with  Michigan  factories  and 
employment  blanks  and  notices  were  given  to  men  for  filling  out  and 
filing.  On  Sundays  it  was  possible  to  have  read  in  Michigan  churches 
notices  of  unusual  interests  to  colored  labor. 

In  Michigan,  as  in  other  States,  there  were  found  employers 
who  had  not  employed  colored  workmen.  Such  employers  were 
visited  personally  by  the  supervisor  and  were  impressed  with  a  state- 
ment of  the  efficiency,  conduct,  and  work  of  many  Negro  workers  in 
Michigan  and  elsewhere. 

In  all  it  would  be  difficult  to  tabulate  specifically  the  many  and 
varied  steps  which  were  taken  in  Michigan.  Such  steps,  however, 
were  based  upon  the  complete  plan  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor  and 
included  the  same  policies  that  the  Department  of  Labor  was  charged 
to  cany  out  in  the  interests  of  all  workers  of  the  United  States, 
white  and  colored,  male  or  female. 

The  Federal  director  of  the  LTnited  States  Employment  Service  com- 
mented with  great  favor  upon  the  work  of  Dr.  Jennifer,  the  Michigan 
supervisor  of  Negro  economics.     (See  letter  quoted  on  p.  23.) 
1989°— 21 6 


CHAPTER  XII. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  MISSISSIPPI. 

Mississippi,  with  its  great  farm  land  and  cotton  areas,  its  tremen- 
dously active  lumber  interests,  its  thousands  of  Negro  workers  who 
were  performing  the  greater  part  of  labor  in  connection  with  those 
industries,  offered  many  complex  problems  for  the  Department  of 
Labor  in  carrying  into  this  State  the  work  of  the  Division  of  Negro 
Economics.  From  the  strict  standpoint  of  economics  the  output 
from  the  above  industries  had  been  jeopardized  throughout  the  war 
period  by  the  tremendously  large  migration  northward  by  Negroes 
from  the  agricultural  districts  of  Mississippi.  It  was  difficult  to  esti- 
mate, as  has  been  done  in  the  other  Southern  States,  the  exact  num- 
ber of  Negroes  leaving  Mississippi  points,  for  the  reason  that  a  great 
many  of  them  were  drawn  from  between  southern  and  northern  Mis- 
sissippi, while  many  others  migrated  to  Arkansas  regions  and  returned 
to  Mississippi. 

However,  of  the  four  to  six  hundred  thousand  Negroes  who  did  in 
fact  come  from  Southern  States  to  the  North  during  the  war  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  Mississippi  contributed  a  larger  proportion  than  any 
other  State  in  the  South.  On  the  part  of  workers  it  had  long  been 
alleged  that  Mississippi  wages  were  low.  SawTuill  wages  were  quoted 
in  1916  as  $1.10  a  day,  while  ordinary  hand  labor  in  the  agricultural  dis- 
tricts, it  is  said,  was  paid  for  at  rates  as  low  as  60  and  75  cents  a  day. 
Four  dollars  a  week  was  said  to  be  a  fair  wage  for  domestic  and  per- 
sonal service,  and  even  though  wages  were  reported  to  have  increased 
durmg  the  period  1916-1918  from  10  to  25  per  cent,  northern  industries 
drew  from  IVIississippi  thousands  and  thousands  of  its  Negro  workers, 
male  and  female.  Being  an  agricultural  State,  producing  cotton, 
foodstuffs,  and  the  like,  and  Negro  workers  performing  the  bulk  of 
labor  in  connection  with  agriculture,  Mississippi  labor  shortage  soon 
became  a  very  serious  matter  to  productivity  of  this  State. 

When  the  United  States  Emplo^Tnent  Service  with  headquarters 
at  Meridian,  Miss.,  arranged  to  supervise  the  State  work,  of  the 
Division  of  Negro  Economics,  the  racial  consciousness  of  Negroes 
was  so  strongly  developed  and  interracial  relations  became  so  cordial 
that  it  was  possible  at  once  to  bring  about  an  immediate  cooperation 
of  State,  private,  and  Federal  agencies  which  was  not  surpassed  by 
that  of  any  other  State  or  locality.  The  State  board  of  education, 
the  Mississippi  Welfare  League,  chambers  of  commerce  throughout 
the  State,  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricultm'e,  the  Missis- 
sippi Association  of  Teachers  in  Colored  Schools,  the  Negro  banks, 
colleges,  and  various  other  private  organizations  promptly  pledged 
their  full  suj^port  to  the  work  of  Negro  economics. 

Consequently,  followmg  a  preliminar}^  trip  through  Mississippi  of 

the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  and  following  a  meeting  of  the 

Southern  Sociological  Congress  on  July  12,  1918,  the  service  of  Negro 

economics  was  established  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 

82 


THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  83 

United  States  Employment  Service,  and  Rev.  J.  C.  Olden,  who  was 
well  known  and  respected  by  citizens  of  Mississippi,  was  appointed 
as  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  that  State.  Prior  to  that  time 
Mr.  Olden  had  been  assisting  the  United  States  Employment  Service 
district  superintendent  in  Mississippi  and  Alabama  points  in  fiu-ther- 
ing  the  aims  of  the  Employment  Service  and  in  stimulating  the  senti- 
ment and  desires  of  Negro  workers.  As  a  result,  he  had  built  up  a 
strong  cham  of  support,  particularly  in  the  churches  and  schools. 

Among  the  early  concrete  results  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory 
committee  there  may  be  cited  the  three  following : 

1.  Cooperation  among  the  railroad  shop  workers  of  Meridian. 

2.  Discriminatory  practices  in  connection  with  the  "work  card  "  system  in  Meridian 
were  brought  before  the  proper  authorities  and  the  entire  scheme  abolished. 

3.  The  Federal  director  requisitioned  the  entire  forces  of  our  advisory  committees 
and  delegated  to  them  the  big  responsibility  of  direct  assistance  in  the  placing  of 
Negro  soldiers. 

It  is  apparent  that  these  results  were  made  possible  through  the 
new  consciousness  of  the  Negro  wage  earner  as  to  his  worth  as  a  pro- 
ducing agent  and  as  to  his  having  a  higher  regard  for  his  employer. 

In  November,  1918,  the  supervisor  formulated  a  pubhcity  program 
which  was  furthered  throughout  the  State  in  January,  1919.  The 
principal  purposes  of  that  program  are  given  below,  and  it  may  be 
noted  that  through  the  county  Ime-up  of  Negro  workers'  advisory  com- 
mittees in  the  State  it  was  possible  to  reach  every  public  and  private 
school  and  coUege  in  the  State  as  well  as  the  public  in  general : 

1.  Members  of  advisory  committee  to  present  the  work  of  the  department  before 
all  schools  in  their  respective  districts  where  no  travel  is  necessary. 

2.  Supervisor  Negro  economics  to  present  the  work  before  all  schools  and  colleges 
not  covered  in  this  allotment.  Allotments  to  be  made  and  specific  dates  set  at  the 
meeting  of  State  committee  (December). 

3.  Each  school  and  college  will  be  asked  to  join  the  ranks  and  support  the  work  and 
give  a  written  indorsement  of  the  same. 

4.  From  time  to  time  (afterwards)  the  schools  will  be  kept  in  constant  touch  with 
our  work  by  means  of  literature  and  personal  visits. 

5.  The  State  department  of  education  will  be  asked  to  indorse  our  program  and  re- 
lease copies  of  their  indorsement  to  all  white  superintendents  and  colored  supervisors. 

6.  Assistant  State  supervisor  of  Negro  schools  will  be  asked  to  assist  in  allotting 
schools  to  committee  members. 

7.  Members  of  the  State  committee  will  be  urged  to  present  our  work  before  every 
public  gathering — fraternal,  business,  religious — ^possible  in  their  various  districts. 

8.  All  white  organizations  of  influence  that  believe  in  the  uplift  of  the  Negro  will  be 
asked  to  indorse  oui"  program  and  lend  every  influence  toward  its  accomplishment. 

9.  If  possible  the  ministry  of  the  State  will  be  asked  to  prepare  special  sermons, 
bearing  on  our  work,  for  the  second  Sunday  in  January. 

10.  Members  of  the  State  committee  will  be  asked  to  see  that  in  all  emancipation 
celebrations  for  January  1  our  work  shall  be  presented. 

As  being  concretely  indicative  of  the  record  for  the  departmental 
work  in  Mississippi  there  may  be  mentioned  the  following  typical 
commendations  of  two  large  Mississippi  firms,  which  said : 

1.  We  trust  that  you  will  remain  in  Meridian  as  long  as  you  possibly  can  and  make 
as  many  talks  as  it  is  possible  for  you  to  make  to  other  employees  as  well  as  to  ours. 

2.  We  wish  to  write  this  testimonial  unsolicited  by  you  as  to  the  beneficial  results  of 
your  inspiring  talks  to  our  employees.  We  were  very  much  impressed  with  your 
talks  and  found  that  our  white  employees  seemed  to  enjoy  them  and  profit  by  them 
as  much  as  our  numerous  colored  workmen. 

The  State  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  was  effectively 
organized  with  a  membership  of  29  and  having  representation  at  the 
beginning  from  25  counties  of  the  State.     Prompt  steps  were  taken 


84  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK    DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

for  the  formation  in  the  counties  of  subcommittees.  Prof.  R.  S. 
Grossley,  assistant  supervisor  of  Negro  schools,  later  field  organizer 
for  the  United  States  Employment  Service,  made  a  survey  of  the 
northern  portion  of  the  State  and  outlined  the  organization  of  the 
county  committees.  The  State  committee  decided  that  its  plan  of 
organization  and  work  should  be  released  to  representatives  of  various 
welfare  organizations  of  the  State  and  that,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
work  should  be  outlined  before  local  societies,  such  as  the  Red 
Cross,  insurance  companies,  and  the  like.  Letters  stating  the  pur- 
pose and  plans  of  the  committee  of  organization  were  released  tlii-ough 
the  United  States  Employment  Service  to  its  subsidiary  officials 
throughout  the  State.  Oi  interestmg  importance  in  the  way  of  co- 
operation there  should  be  mentioned  the  attitude  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Conference  of  the  State  of  Mississippi,  which  indorsed 
completely  the  departmental  program.  This  conference  had  pre- 
viously carried  on  a  campaign  m  the  interest  of  efficiency  of  Negro 
wage  earners,  and  was  quick  to  recognize  the  facility  to  be  gained 
through  official  functions. 

In  January,  1919,  the  supervisor  visited  a  number  of  Mississippi 
counties  and  cities,  among  which  were  McComb,  Pike,  Amite,  Walthall, 
Lincoln,  Marion,  and  Crystal  Springs.  At  these  points  county  teachers' 
meetings  were  attended  and  full  cooperation  of  the  teaching  forces 
secured.  Prof.  Grossley,  representmg  the  State  board  of  education, 
was  present  at  these  meetmgs  and  his  subsequent  work  calls  for  the 
sincere  thanks  of  the  department  to  him  and  to  the  Mississippi 
State  educational  department  for  their  constant  help,  Mr.  Grossley 
having  served  throughout  the  work  as  a  dollar-a-year  man. 

The  domestic  help  problem  mentioned  previously  in  this  report 
gained  particular  significance  by  March,  1919,  and  in  line  ^vith  the 
policies  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  to  assist  in  reliev- 
ing this  problem  a  survey  was  made  by  the  supervisor,  from  which 
the  foUowing  facts  were  adduced: 

1.  Conditions. — (a)  Unrest  among  domestic  help;  (?>)  constant  shifting  of  domestic 
help;  (c)  lack  of  interest  in  work  and  efficiency  among  domestic  help;  (d)  absolute 
refusal  to  work  on  part  of  domestic  help. 

2.  Apparent  causes. — («)  Low  wages;  (b)  lack  of  sympathetic  cooperation  between 
women  employers  and  women  employees. 

Concerning  (c)  and  (d)  imder  the  conditions  we  find  the  following 
very  human  attitudes  expressed  in  this  simple  manner : 

What's  the  use  of  doing  good  work  when  we  get  poor  pay?  It  is  better  to  do 
nothing  "for  nothing"  than  to  work  "  for  nothing." 

In  the  way  of  suggestions  for  relief  the  supervisor  recommended 
that  a  vigorous  campaign  of  conferences  with  women  workers  be 
begun,  together  with  added  assistance  from  the  colored  ministry  to 
the  end  that  cooperation  of  the  women  workers  and  women  employers 
might  bring  forth  some  concession  on  the  part  of  employers  to  the 
efficient  women  workere  in  the  matter  of  wages.  These  coiiferences 
were  had  and,  in  many  instances,  the  problem  was  much  relieved. 

The  program  of  work  of  Negro  workei-s'  advisory  committees  varied 
to  some  extent  in  accordance  with  the  peculiar  conditions  of  each 
State.  The  program  of  work  which  was  outlined  for  Mssissippi  is 
given  below  as  showing  the  most  stable  means  of  accomplishing  the 
objects  of  the  work  in  this  State. 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  85 

SUGGESTIONS    TO    INDIVIDUAL    MEMBERS    OF    THE    NEGRO    WORKERS'     ADVISORY    COM- 
MITTEES   FOR   FIRST   STEPS   IN    LOCAL    ORGANIZATION. 

1.  Calling  together  colored  representatives. — It  will  probably  be  well  to  call  together 
four  or  fiA-e  most  responsible  colored  citizens  (at  least  one  of  them  should  be  a  woman) 
in  voiir  countv,  towi,  or  city  and  go  over  Avith  them  in  detail,  the  plans  and  pm-pose 
of  the  State  Negi-o  workers'"  advisory  committee.  In  calling  together  these  persons 
all  possible  factionalism  should  be  aA-oided.  The  men  and  women  called  together 
should  be  the  leaders  of  Aarious  organizations  and  the  various  occupations  of  the 
commiuiity. 

2.  Get  in  touch  uith  vhite  employers.— The  Federal  Director  of  the  United  States 
Employment  SerAice  of  yom-  State,  or  the  Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics  vdW  give 
you,  if  you  vnite  him,  the  names  of  some  white  citizens  of  your  community  whom 
these  officials  depend  upon  for  local  matters.  You  also  know  some  of  the  most  re- 
sponsible and  trusted  white  employers  of  yom-  locality.  It  will  be  w^ell  to  go  to  them 
for  information  and  advice  about  cooperation  of  white  people  in  your  efforts  on  labor 
questions  affecting  the  colored  people.  In  case  you  do  not  know  the  name  and  address 
of  the  State  official,  wiite  for  the  information  to  the  chairman  of  your  State  Negro 
workers'  adA-isory  committee  or  to  Dr.  George  E.  Haynes,  Director  of  Negi'o  Eco- 
nomics, Department  of  Labor.  Washington,  D.  0. 

3.  Explain  to  vhite  citizens  the  organization  of_  the  State  committee. — The  representa- 
t\\e  white  men  in  vour  community  should  be  interested.  Get  in  touch  with  two  or 
three  of  them,  as  suggested  under  No.  2,  and  tell  them  about  the  organization  of  the 
State  Negi-o  workers'  ad^isoiy  committee.  Explain  to  them  that  this  committee  has 
cooperative  white  members;  explain  further  the  plan  to  have  a  county  and  neighbor- 
hood Negi-o  advisoiy  committee  with  white  cooperati\e  members.  It  is  w^ell  to  ask 
their  help  in  securing  white  citizens  as  permanent  cooperating  members  of  the  county 
and  local  advisory  committees.  As  soon  as  you  decide  on  representative  colored 
men  for  members  of  your  local  committee,  and  white  men  wiio  may  be  recommended 
for  cooperating  members,  send  those  names,  with  comments  about  the  persons,  their 
occupations  and  other  connections,  to  the  chairman  of  your  State  advisory  committee. 

4.  Reaching  the  colored  population. — The  large  numbers  of  colored  people  may  be 
reached  through  the  chiuches  and  the  lodges.  A  personal  visit  made  by  you  or  some 
other  responsible  person  to  talk  to  those  attending  each  chm'ch  and  each  lodge  is 
necessary.  They  need  to  be  informed  about  the  relation  of  their  productive  labor 
to  agiicultm-e  and  industry.  It  will  help  also  to  secure  white  citizens  to  talk  to 
Negi-o  audiences.  The  facts  about  the  purpose  of  th  e  Department  of  Labor  in  organiz- 
ing these  Negro  workers'  advisory  committees  should  be  stated  (see  Article  II  of  the 
constitution  of  the  committee).  Explain  the  present  labor  oisis  and  the  important 
part  Negroes  are  plaving  and  can  play  in  getting  one  hundred  per  cent  production. 
The  Department  of  Labor  desires  to  "get  these  constructive  plans  before  your  com- 
mimity  v^ery  soon  by  your  help  and  the  help  of  others  on  the  State  Comrnittee.  As 
soon  as  you'are  in  apposition  to  put  further  plans  in  operation,  please  signify  that  by 
writing  "the  chairman  of  your  State  Advisory  Committee  or  to  the  Supervisor  of  Negro 
Economics,  Department  of  Labor,  Meridian,  Miss. 

5.  Cooperation  in  adjustiiig  conditions. — If  there  is  anything  in  your  community 
which  is  causing  restlessness  and  dissatisfaction  among  the  colored  people  and  you 
think  these  should  be  brought  to  the  attention  of  wliite  employers  go  to  two  or  three 
white  citizens  whom  you  can  trust  or  the  cooperating  membersof  your  committee 
and  ask  them  to  help  you  get  the  facts  relating  to  such  dissatisfaction  before  the 
members  of  local  authorities  or  employers. 

Please  bear  in  mind,  however,  especially  in  giving  complaints,  by  all  means  to  have 
some  constructive  plans  and  suggestions  to  correct  and  satisfy  the  complaints  of  the 
colored  people.  As  you  will  agree,  it  is  not  sufficient  and  it  is  poor  policy  to  go  for- 
ward at  any  time  with  complaints  and  not  have  positive  plans  for  remedying  them. 
Some  practical,  constructive  suggestions  and  plans  which  can  be  proposed  to  remedy 
causes  are  by  all  means  essential. 

Fmthermore,  we  should  not  always  expect  to  have  our  plans  to  remedy  those  con- 
ditions adopted.  Other  citizens  may  have  better  plans.  The  aim  of  the  Negro 
workers'  advisory  committees  is  to  help  with  constructive  plans  and  programs  to  assist 
our  country  in  getting  the  largest  production  in  agriculture  and  industry  and  at  the 
same  time  to  help  secure  improved  conditions  among  Negi-o  wage  earners.  Both 
these  ends  can  best  be  reached  by  constructive  plans  and  pro.grams. 

C.  There  is  being  organized,  now,  by  the  United  States  Employment  Service  what 
are  known  as  community  labor  boards,  made  up  of  representatives  of  the  employers, 
of  the  employees,  and  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service.  You  should  get 
in  touch  with  the  white  men  who  are  on  youi"  local  community  labor  board.    If  there 


86  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

is  no  local  board,  you  should  endeavor  to  obtain,  through  the  Super\isor  of  Negro 
Economics,  the  names  of  white  citizens  with  whom  you  should  get  in  touch  on  em- 
ployment matters. 

In  case  you  do  not  know  who  the  local  members  of  your  community  labor  board 
are,  you  should  write  to  the  Federal  Director  of  the  United  States  Flmployment 
Service  of  yoiu-  State,  to  your  State  Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics,  or  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. 

7.  Some  of  the  types  of  u'ork  tchich  you  can  begin. — (a)  Holding  public  mass  meet- 
ings to  inform  the  people  about  the  need  for  systematic  labor;  (/;)  Discussions  at  regu- 
lar church  and  lodge  meetings  and  other  gatherings;  (c)  Bringing  to  the  attention  oi 
the  United  States  Employment  SerAice  any  misunderstandings  among  the  colored 
people  about  the  use  of  that  serAice  by  them. 

Further  suggestions  will  be  furnished  you  upon  request. 

Any  other  thdngs  which  it  seems  to  you  it  would  be  well  to  do  in  your  community 
you  may  take  up  with  the  chairman  of  your  State  Ad\Tsory  Committee  or  with  tht 
Super\isor  of  Negro  Economics  of  your  State,  if  one  has  been  appointed. 

George  E.  Haynes, 
Director  of  Negro  Economics. 

October,  1918. 

January,  1919,  found  the  work  in  Mississippi  well  under  way.  The 
program  of  work  had  been  presented  at  the  Meridian  Emancipation 
celebration  exercises.  The  introductory  card  made  up  by  the  super- 
visor and  approved  by  the  Federal  director  to  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  recruiting  had  been  sent  out  and  a  subsequent  State  corn- 
mittee  meeting,  as  the  work  developed,  had  been  planned.  This 
meeting  was  held  on  January  27,  1919,  in  the  Board  of  Trade  Build- 
ing of  Jackson,  Miss.,  and  the  following  points  were  discussed: 

1.  Organization. 

2.  Efficiency  of  Negro  labor. 

3.  Better  conditions  for  farm  labor. 

4.  Bo3"S  Working  Reserve. 

5.  Plantation  life  in  the  Delta. 

The  Federal  Director  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service 
was  present  and  emphasized  the  need  for  a  readjustment  between 
men,  races,  and  nations,  and  the  common  basis  of  understanding  of 
right  and  justice.  A  cordial  spirit  of  good  will  and  hearty  coopera- 
tion existed  throughout  the  meeting  and  eveiy  interest  was  more 
strongly  linked  up  than  ever  before  in  the  purpose  of  furthering  the 
plans  of  the  Department  of  Labor.  The  organization  of  the  Boys 
Working  Reserve,  an  organization  of  3'outhful  members  to  substi- 
tute for  men  who  were  in  the  Army  in  planting  and  harvesting  the 
agricultural  crops,  was  taken  up.  Later  on  the  Boys  Working  Re- 
serve Organization  among  Negro  youth  of  Mississippi  became  effi- 
cient and  helpful.  At  the  close  of  January  the  plans  as  applicable 
to  Mississippi  were  well  established  for  returning  soldiers.  In  Fe- 
ruary  1919  the  Supervisor  visited  Yazoo  City,  Greenwood,  Indianola, 
Greenville  and  Vicksburg.  He  reported  "^increased  thrift  among 
Negro  men  and  women  and  full  time  labor  in  the  cotton  fields.  He 
reported,  however,  that  in  regions  where  conditions  were  particu- 
larly bad  there  were  miles  and  miles  of  fields  of  unpicked  cotton. 

In  December,  1918,  Supervisor  Olden,  who  returned  to  liis  ministry, 
was  succeeded  by  Lemuel  L.  Foster,  who  took  over  the  duties  as 
supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  Mississippi.  Mr.  Foster  had  been 
tramed  at  Fisk  University,  had  done  considerable  welfare  and  social 
work  in  the  South,  and  for  one  month  prior  to  his  appointment,  had 
given  voluntary  assistance  to  the  United  States  Employment  Service 
in  furthering  its  work.     Mr.  Foster  took  up  with  vigor  the  program 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  87 

begun  by  bis  predecessor  and  supervised  tbe  work  until  its  close,  June 
30,  1918.  Among  the  surveys  he  made  a  special  report  on  two  of 
the  large  lumber  companies  of  Mississippi,  which  had  realized  the 
need  of  uniformly  good  working  conditions  and  recreational  facilities 
for  its  workers.  He  reported  in  these  two  instances  a  contented  and 
efficient  working  force  and  a  lack  of  turnover.  These  surveys  were 
considered  of  sufficient  importance  for  a  departmental  release  and 
the  facts  were  given  wide  publicity  in  order  to  stimulate  other 
employers  and  other  employees,  respectively,  to  establish  and  to 
hope  to  receive  the  same  treatment. 

The  membership  on  the  advisory  committee  of  white  and  colored 
citizens  included  the  former  mayor  of  Meridian,  the  vice  president 
of  the  Citizens'  National  Bank,  the  clerk  of  the  chancery  court, 
and  a  prominent  business  man,  all  of  whom  were  representative 
white  citizens,  shows  again  the  type  of  cooperation  which  the  depart- 
ment was  able  to  secure.  (For  letter  commending  the  work,  see 
p.  23.) 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  NEW  JERSEY. 

Prior  to  the  war,  Negro  workers  had  been  employed  here  and  there 
in  industrial  and  agricultural  pursuits  in  New  Jersey.  A  fairly  good 
wage  was  paid  to  the  Negro  workers  in  the  occupations  to  whicli  they 
were  admitted.  With  the  increased  demands  of  the  war,  industries 
in  New  Jersey  quite  naturally  became  attractive  locations  for  thou- 
sands of  Negroes  who  came  north.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  25,000 
Negro  migrants  located  in  the  cities  of  New  Jersey  during  the  period 
of  1916-17.  The  probable  distribution  of  these  ne^vcomers,  on  the 
estimated  basis,  is  indicated  in  the  following  table: 

New  York  Central  cami),  Weehawken 500 

Erie  camps: 

Weehawken 300 

Jersey  City , 100 

Philadelphia  &  Reading,  Pennsylvania  R.  R.,  etc.,  camps 1,  300 

Jersey  City 3, 000 

Newark 7, 000 

Carneys  Point 3,  500 

Trenton 3, 000 

Camden 2. 000 

Bayonne,  Paterson,  and  Perth  Amboy 4, 000 

Wrightstown  and  South  Jersey 3. 000 

Orange,  Montclair,  Paterson 3, 000 

Total 30  700 

Various  agencies,  Federal,  State,  and  private,  were  keeping  in  touch 
with  conditions  affecting  the  labor  situation  of  New  Jersey  for  some 
time  prior  to  the  establisliment  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Elconomics.  j 
Among  the  more  important  agencies  giving  special  attention  to  Negro  1 
affairs  were  the  Associated  Charities  of  Newark,  the  Urban  League 
of  Newark,  and  the  State  Bureau  of  Negro  Migrants  of  the  State  De- 
partment of  Labor,  under  the  direction  of  Col.  Lewis  Bryant.  This 
work  caused  increased  attention  to  be  given  to  matters  pertaining 
to  Negro  workers.  Correlating  the  efforts  of  these  organizations,  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  had  carried  forward  the  employ- 
ment policies  and  developed  the  recruiting  and  placement  facilities 
in  every  field  of  labor,  including  Negro  labor.  It  was  quite  natural, 
then,  that  the  Department  of  Labor,  having  established  a  special 
Negro  economics  service,  should  turn  to  these  agencies  in  the  begin- 
ning for  advice  and  assistance  in  putting  into  effect  its  special  plans 
for  improving  conditions  and  relations  of  Negro  workei^. 

A  hasty  preliminary  survey  was  undertaken  in  Newark,  N.  J.,  by 
William  M.  Ashby,  at  that  time  executive  secretary  of  the  Urban 
League,  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  later  supervisor  of  Negro  economics 
for  New  Jersey.  The  city  of  Newark  was  the  largest  industrial  cen- 
ter in  the  State  and  was  a  pivotal  point  from  which  departmental 
activities  affecting  Negro  workers  might  be  weU  directed. 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  89 

The  Negro  population  in  Newark  in  1910  was  approximately  10,000. 
B}-  1918  there  had  been  an  addition  of  from  8,000  to  10,000  and  at 
the  close  of  19 18  this  number  had  been  increased.  The  mean  number 
of  deaths  for  1917  was  about  550,  or  probably  20.23  per  cent  per 
1,000,  a  rather  large  number,  probably  on  account  of  the  newcomers 
from  the  South  who  were  subjected  to  very  unfavorable  housing  and 
living  conditions  under  the  severe  New  Jersey  climate,  and  who  were 
not  advised  as  to  proper  clothing.  These  figures  were  corroborated 
by  prominent  insurance  companies. 

Unlike  most  cities,  in  Newark  there  had  been  previously  no  distinct 
Negro  quarters.  With  the  influx  of  newcomers,  however,  Negro  dis- 
tricts formed  and  from  a  few  families  large  neighborhoods  developed. 
The  general  trend  of  living  conditions  indicated  a  merging  together 
of  the  older  residents  and  the  newer  Negro  population.  Housing 
conditions  were  poor  and  rents  were  high.  In  a  number  of  cases  10 
and  12  persons  lived  in  two  or  three  rooms.  The  high  purchase 
prices  of  properties  and  excessive  rents,  which  increased  in  keeping 
with  the  law  of  demand  and  supply,  and  the  restricted  area  where 
colored  people  could  purchase,  often  keep  the  newcomei-s  from  secur- 
ing suitable  quarters. 

Negroes  were  engaged,  principally,  in  the  unskilled  work  in  chemical 
plants,  transportation,  trucking,  smpyard  work,  leather  factories,  iron 
molding,  foundries,  construction,  and  team  driving.  In  Newark 
the  Negro  construction  workers  and  iron  shipbuilding  workers  formed 
a  union  which  did  not  win  the  recognition  of  the  secretary  of  the  State 
Federation  of  Labor  because  he  said  the  Negroes  wanted  to  choose  a 
name  that  was  already  in  use  by  another  union.  A  smeltermen's  union 
was  organized  in  Trenton  among  the  Negroes.  Their  delegate  sits 
in  the  Federated  Union  CouncU  of  the  city.  A  hod  carriere'  union, 
Local  No.  1,  elected  a  Negro  as  delegate.  This  union  has  about 
1,200  members,  about  50  per  cent  of  whom  are  white.  The  team- 
sters' union  of  whites  and  Negroes  has  a  Negro  delegate. 

It  is  estimated  that  6,000  male  and  1,000  female  workers  were  em- 
ployed in  the  several  industries  in  Newark  alone.  The  Negro  female 
workers  found  employment  in  toy  factories,  shirt  factories,  clothing 
factories,  and  glue  factories,  at  an  average  wage  of  about  $8  a  week. 
In  the  shell-loading  plants  the  pay  was  much  higher.  This  is  true 
of  pieceworkers  in  other  occupations,  too.  Negro  women  were  also 
at  work  in  garment  factories,  tobacco  factories,  toy  factories,  shell- 
loading  plants,  celluloid  manufacturing,  food  production,  leather-bag 
making  and  trunk  making,  as  well  as  m  assorting  cores  in  foundries. 

Negro  women  became  reluctant  to  take  positions  as  domestic 
servants  on  account  of  increasing  demands  for  their  services  in  in- 
dustrial plants.  Occasionally,  a  machinist,  a  carpenter,  a  millwright 
found  employment  as  a  skilled  worker,  and  hundreds  of  riveters  were 
employ ea  in  the  Federal  shipbuilding  agencies  and  districts,  not  to 
speak  of  private  concerns.  Calkers  and  shipfitters  were  also  in 
demand.  Anglesmiths,  boiler  makers,  packers,  molders,  steel  chip- 
pers,  and  stationary  firemen  found  ample  employment. 

As  a  hopeful  sign  there  may  be  pointed  out  the  small  amount  of 
friction  between  male  workers  of  the  two  races;  race  relations  were 
scarcely  ever  other  than  harmonious.  Difficulties  were  more  fre- 
quent among  females.  There  were  difficulties,  also,  when  Negro 
skilled  workers  were  first  put  on  any  job.     Also,  there  were  occa- 


90  THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

sional  difficulties  where  white  and  colored  workers  were  engaged  in 
the  same  plant. 

The  Negro  church  is  the  most  effective  agency  for  dealing  with 
Negro  workers,  and  through  their  church  life  a  larger  connection 
can  be  made  than  in  any  other  way,  but,  unfortunately,  it  was  only 
the  individual  ministers  who  took  the  Negro's  industrial  advantage 
seriously  and  tried  to  point  out  to  him  the  industrial  virtues.  The 
church  situation,  therefore,  is  always  an  important  factor  to  under- 
stand in  any  community.  Newark  is  predominantly  a  Negro  Bap- 
tist community.  In  some  cases,  migrants  from  the  South  brought 
pastors  of  their  own  denominations  with  them  and  they  reestab- 
lished their  congregations  in  the  new  home.  The  department  found 
a  great  need  for  handling  social  and  industrial  problems  and  began 
cautiously  to  develop  a  program  of  work  for  the  entire  State. 

Accordingly,  William  M.  Ashby,  mentioned  above,  a  graduate  of 
Lincoln  and  Yale  Universities  and  a  man  of  unusual  experience  in 
industrial  and  social  work,  was  released  by  his  organization  to  the 
Department  of  Labor  to  be  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  New 
Jersey.  Mr.  Ashby  at  once  made  a  brief  investigation  of  certain 
New  Jersey  firms,  visiting  the  cities  of  Elizabeth,  Jersey  City,  Bay- 
onne,  Garwood,  Mays  Landing,  Camden,  Paterson,  Camp  Dix, 
Camp  Merritt,  Atlantic  City,  Carneys  Point,  and  other  strategic 
points.  Prominent  firms  in  these  cities,  engaged  in  fulfilling  both 
Government  contracts  and  contracts  for  private  firms  and  individ- 
uals, expressed  their  desire  for  the  assistance  of  the  Department  of 
Labor. 

To  three  large  firms  in  Camden  the  supervisor  suggested  the 
placement  of  a  Negro  foreman,  in  order  to  handle  with  the  greatest 
satisfaction  gangs  of  Negro  workers.  This  suggestion  was  adopted 
in  each  case.  At  Amatol,  a  shell-loading  plant  was  approached  by 
the  supervisor  on  the  matter  of  the  diversion  of  a  large  number  of 
colored  women  workers  from  Atlantic  City.  Three  hundred  and 
eighty-five  such  workers  were  secured  in  a  few  days. 

A  large  plant  at  Paulsboro,  which  was  running  only  one-fourth  of 
its  capacity  on  account  of  the  labor  shortage,  was  assisted  by  re- 
cruiting workers  from  Camden.  This  firm  was  engaged  in  rnaking 
French  shells.  At  Camden,  a  shipbuilding  company^  received  a 
supply  of  Negro  workers  through  the  employment  activity  of  the 
supervisor. 

For  a  firm  in  Garwood,  which  was  making  steel  and  brass  rods  for 
the  United  States  Nav;\-,  men  were  recruited  from  Newark.  To  a 
Jersey  City  firm  with  a  Government  contract  to  supply  meat  for 
overseas,  the  supervisor  brought,  within  five  days,  about  45  Negro 
w^orkers.  At  Pompton  Lakes,  a  plant  running  onh'  to  about  60  per 
cent  of  its  capacity  because  of  labor  shortage  was  assisted  in  securing 
about  25  colored  men.  This  plant  had  feared  racial  friction;  but 
under  the  advice  of  the  supervisor,  no  racial  trouble  came  as  a  result 
of  bringing  these  colored  men. 

In  Grasseli,  Newark,  Edgev/ater,  Kearney,  Lakehm-st,  Freehold, 
Chrome,  and  Bound  Brook,  at  later  dates,  the  supervisor  gave  similar 
assistance,  placing  in  all  over  250  Negro  workers  in  the  com^e  of 
about  three  weeks. 

On  another  itinerary,  the  supervisor  visited  Paterson,  Elizabeth, 
Orange,  Plainfield,  Bayonne,  Trenton,  Atlantic  City,  Asbur\-  Park, 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  91 

Perth  Amboy,  Dover,  and  Roebling,  making  observations  of  labor 
shortages  and  assisting  in  recruiting  and  placing  Negro  workers  to 
supply  the  needs. 

As  samples  of  such  observations  and  practical  action  which  fol- 
lowed, there  are  cited  below  five  brief  investigations  conducted  by 
the  New  Jersey  supervisor  in  November,  1918: 

1.  A  female  employee  of  the  — —  Co.,  being  an  operator  on  a  night  shift,  was 
overheard  by  me  to  complain  of  unjust  treatment  on  a  threat  of  ejection  in  the  middle 
of  the  night  from  the  plant  of  the  aforesaid  company,  by  one  of  its  assistant  foremen. 
Fearing  that  her  story,  though  harmlessly  told,  would  create  an  erroneous  impression 
and  prol:)ably  thereby  menace  the  opportunity  of  other  operatives,  I  interrupted  her 
and  asked  her  to  repeat  it  to  me.  Upon  hearing  it  in  full,  I  took  her  to  the  representa- 
tive of  the  company  in  this  office  and  with  her  assistance  an  interview  with  the  em- 
ployment manager  and  general  manager  was  secm-ed.  The  statement  of  her  case  in 
this  interview — at  which  also  was  the  assistant  foreman  against  whom  the  complaint 
was  made — was  thoroughly  considered  and  satisfactorily  settled.  Thus,  the  suspi- 
cions of  other  Ne.gi'o  workers  who  were  sought  for  this  plant  were  met  and  dispelled. 

2.  In  an  attempt  to  produce  greater  efficiency  among  the  colored  women  operatives 

of  the Co.,  I  had  a  lady  of  our  department,  along  with  the  lady  in  charge  of  a 

colored  social  settlement,  interview  the  superintendent  of  the  women's  department 
of  the  company.  The  superintendent  of  the  above-mentioned  company  reports  that, 
as  against  12  colored  women,  the  number  with  which  they  started  three  months  ago, 
there  are  now  122  colored  women,  and  that  their  work  is  very  creditable  under  the 
direction  of  a  matron  who  is  colored.     Efficiency  clubs  will  be  organized  in  this  shop. 

3.  A  female  employee  of  the Co.  complained  of  discrimination  received  at 

the  plant  for  which  she  worked.  The  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  had  the  matter 
investigated  and  received  report  that  this  company  had  ceased  operation  on  account 
of  cancellation  of  contract.     Case  can  not  be  carried  further. 

4.  A  general  cii'cular  form  was  sent  to  55  employers  of  Negro  labor  throughout  the 
State  of  New  Jersey,  to  ascertain  the  quality  of  the  work  which  is  being  given  by 
such  labor.    The  replies  are  varied,  the  general  tone  being  very  commendable. 

5.  The  investigation  at  the —  plant  revealed  that  there  are  now  about  60  col- 
ored women  operatives  whose  work  is  commendable  as  against  the  unit  of  10  which  we 
started  there  when  the  opportunity  was  opened. 

In  keeping  with  the  plans  of  the  department,  the  New  Jersey  con- 
ference, drawn  along  the  lines  of  prior  conferences  in  other  States, 
was  called  and  held  on  Friday,  November  22,  1918.  Representative 
citizens,  white  and  colored,  from  all  over  the  State  were  present.  The 
folio wmg  program  was  carried  out : 

The  constitution  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  was 
adopted,  and  shortly  thereafter  the  formation  of  committees  was 
begun.  On  account  of  the  location  of  persons  and  problems  in  the 
cities  of  New  Jersey,  it  was  more  practicable  to  begin  at  first  the 
formation  of  the  city  committees  than  to  follow  the  plans  of  other 
States  and  form,  first,  the  State  and  county  committees.  Accord- 
ingly Negro  workers'  advisory  committees  were  soon  formed  in  Pat- 
erson,  Newark,  Camden,  Trenton,  Atlantic  City,  and  several  other. 
New  Jersey  points.  These  committees  functioned  under  the  direction 
of  the  State  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  and  in  close  cooperation 
with  the  United  States  Employment  Service  and  other  public  and 
private  organizations'. 

As  a  sample  of  other  activities  in  this  State,  the  following  extracts 
are  given.  The  following  concerns  the  peculiar  condition  which  the 
New  Jersey  supervisor  f oimd  at  Camp  Dix,  N.  J. : 


92  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORED  WAR,       ' 

REPORT   ON    SITUATION   AMONG    COLORED    SOLDIERS   AT    CAMP   DIX,    N.    J.,    WHO    ARE    TO 

BE   DEMOBILIZED   SOON. 

On  Friday,  January  3,  1919,  I  went  to  Camp  Dix.  Immediately  on  my  arrival  I 
went  to  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Hut  No.  7,  which  is  used  by  Negro  soldiers.  Mr.  Shelby  DaAid- 
son,  secretary,  and  Mr.  C.  T.  Greene,  assistant  secretary,  were  interviewed.'  In  the 
course  of  inter\dew  the  point  of  most  significance  was  the  fact  that  there  wa.')  a  decided 
aversion  on  the  part  of  all  the  men  attaching  their  names  to  anything  which  sjjelled 
United  States,  as  most  of  them  believed  it  meant  reenlistment.  This  corroborated  th'' 
statement  made  by  Mr.  WilUam  Banks,  of  the  Employment  Service,  now  in  the  camp. 
The  secretary  mentioned  also  the  fact  that  men  from  the  United  States  Employment 
Ser^ice  had  "talked  to  the  colored  men  to  enlist  their  interest,  but  few  had  gone  over. 

I  then  went  to  Building  928,  where  I  met  Col.  Casper  H.  Cole,  the  commandant, 
and  Mr.  William  Banks,  who  is  in  charge  of  the  United  States  Employment  SerA-ice 
in  the  camp.  I  inquired  whether  colored  men  came  into  the  office  in  great  nembers. 
The  answer  was  negative.  The  reason  for  this  was,  I  believe,  due  to  what  was  said 
above,  that  men  are  afraid  to  sign  their  names  to  Government  matters.  I  asked  if 
the  command  that  all  soldiers  in  the  camp  be  marched  to  the  employment  office  be- 
fore their  demobilization  applied  to  colored  as  well  as  white  men.  The  answer  was 
affirmative. 

After  their  supper  I  spoke  to  about  300  colored  men  in  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  explained 
the  situation  more  clearly  relative  to  the  Government's  position  in  interest  of  getting 
men  work  as  soon  as  they  are  discharged. 

My  suggestion  on  the  situation  as  applicable  to  all  men  in  the  camp,  white  and  col- 
ored alike,  is  that  in  speaking  of  railroad  opportunities  men  say  "Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road," "Reading  Railroad,"  or  "Santa  Fe,"  etc.,  instead  of  saying  United  States  Rail- 
road Administration,  and  also  that  in  speaking  of  shipyards  they  say  "Submarine,"' 
"Newport  News,"  "Bristol,"  ■"Tampa,"  etc.,  instead  of  United  States  Shipping 
Board.  This  would  eliminate  from  the  minds  of  men  the  idea  of  a  connection  between 
the  idea  of  a  job  and  the  Government. 

William  M.  Ashby, 
Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics  for  New  Jersey. 

The  following  letter  shows  the  type  of  effort  maugurated  duruig 
the  reconstruction  period  to  give  first-hand  assistance  through  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  to  returning  soldiers: 

Circular  letter  of  advice. 

March  27,  1919. 
From:  The  Director  of  Negro  Economics. 
To:  The  Supervisors  of  Negro  Economics. 
Subject:  Cooperation  with  War  Camp  Community  Service. 

1.  I  find  that  the  W^ar  Camp  Community  Service  has  a  number  of  camps  for  Negro 
soldiers  and  sailors,  and  I  am  informed  that  it  is  coojjerating  with  the  United  States 
Employment  Ser\'ice.  I  have  talked  ■\\ith  some  of  the  representatives  about  their 
colored  work  and  have  also  taken  up  the  matter  with  the  Director  General,  United 
States  Employment  SerAice,  and  the  National  Director  of  the  Bureau  for  Placing  Re- 
turning Soldiers  and  Sailors.  It  is  agreeable  to  the  national  director  for  you  to  take 
up  with  the  Federal  director  of  the  employment  ser\dce  of  yoiu-  State  the  question  of 
utilizing  such  of  these  war  camps  as  seem  suitable  for  assisting  in  placing  Negro  soldiers 
and  sailors. 

2.  You  will  find  inclosed  a  Kst  of  the  communities  where  there  are  acti^dties  for 
colored  soldiers,  together  with  the  names  of  the  workers.  I  ad\ise  that  you  take  this 
up  with  the  Federal  director  and  assist  him  in  getting  in  touch  with  such  of  these 

.  people  as  he  wishes  to. 
Respectfully,  ■ 

George  E.  Haynes, 
Director  of  Negro  Economics. 
Approved: 

Edward  Easton,  Jr., 

National  Superintendent, 

Bureau  for  Returning  Soldiers  and  Sailors. 
Wade  H.  Skinner, 

Acting  Director,  Organization  Division, 

U.  S.  Employment  Service. 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  93 

Some  sample  replies  to  letters  of  the  New  Jersey  Supervisor  contain 
statements  regarding  the  employment  of  Negro  workers.  These 
responses  were  in  reply  to  a  questionnaire  the  object  of  which  was  to 
secure  the  information : 

With  reference  to  the  questionnaire  received  from  you,  we  are  pleased  to  advise 
that  we  are  using  Negro  workers  as  porters,  elevator  operators,  matrons,  dishwashers, 
and  for  other  miscellaneous  positions  in  the  restaurant. 

During  the  war  we  engaged  quite  a  number  of  colored  women  to  act  as  elevator 
operators.  In  all  branches  of  the  work,  we  have  found  Negro  workers  entirely  satis- 
factory. 


Answering  your  favor  of  recent  date  with  reference  to  the  Negro  workers  in  our 
plant,  I  beg  to  state  that  we  are  well  pleased  with  their  work  and  I  find  them  to  be 
good  and  willing  workers  under  the  supervision  of  our  white  foremen,  whom  we  have 
instructed  to  give  every  colored  man  or  woman  applj-ing  for  work  to  this  company 
the  most  cordial  treatment,  not  the  variety  that  will  antagonize  and  drive  them  away 
from  the  job. 

My  personal  dealings  in  the  past  as  Employment  and  Welfare  Manager,  with  the 
white  and  Negro  workers  have  proven  successful,  as  I  have  found  that  through  kind- 
ness and  friendly  treatment,  eliminating  all  profanity  and  personal  insults,  the  major- 
ity of  the  Negro  workers  will  do  the  work  assigned  to  them  thoroughly  and  to  any 
company's  satisfaction. 

At  present  we  have  in  our  employ  several  hundred  Negroes  employed  as  gener^J 
factory  helpers  only,  but  in  the  near  future  I  hope  to  be  successful  in  inducing  my 
company  to  employ  Negro  mechanics.     *    *    * 


Answermg  your  inquiry  of  the  4th  inst.,  would  advise  that  about  40  per  cent  of  our 
labor  is  Negro.  We  do  not  find  them  to  be  as  steady  workers  as  the  whites,  although, 
in  some  instances,  they  have  proven  to  be  very  faithful. 

We  use  them  largely  on  work  where  muscular  strength  and  endurance  are  of  prime 
importance  and  in  this  they  work  out  quite  well. 

In  a  very  few  instances  we  have  them  operating  machines,  and,  although  we  con- 
sider these  workers  above  the  average,  their  work  is  very  satisfactory. 


Your  letter,  requesting  information  regarding  our  colored  employees,  was  received 
We  have,  altogether,  about  1,250  colored  men  and  6  women.  Of  the  latter,  4  are 
in  our  main  restaurant  as  dishwashers,  and  two  in  oiir  administration  buildings,  who 
keep  the  ladies'  room  in  order.  As  a  general  rule  our  Negro  workers  give  satisfaction. 
Almost  all  of  them  are  employed  on  the  ships.  They  seem  to  make  very  good  riveters 
bolters-up  and  chippers  and  caulkers.  Those  who  recently  came  from  the  South 
seem  to  feel  the  cold  weather,  but  the  others  who  are  acclimated,  are  as  strong  and 
hardy  as  the  white  men. 

Among  the  number  we  have  there  are  about  75  or  100  West  Indian  Negroes  There 
are  no  colored  men  domg  clerical  work  here  at  all.  There  are  some  working  as  laborers 
and  as  far  as  I  know  none  are  in  the  machine  shops.  ' 

The  following  statements  of  Mr.  Ashby,  the  New  Jersey  supervisor 
of  Negro  economics,  give  a  very  full  insight  into  certain  of  his  activities. 
These  reports  cover  various  periods  following  the  signing  of  the 
armistice  and  show  the  complete  turning  over  of  departmental 
machinery  to  meet  peace-time  demands  in  the  industrial  life  of  the 
State : 

I  am  very  pleased  to  report  a  slight  change  for  the  better  on  the  New  Jersey  con- 
ditions of  Negro  labor  this  week.  At  the  opening  of  the  past  week  the  offices  found 
themselves  unable  to  make  opportunities  but  later  in  the  week  new  developments 
occurred.  This  was  true,  particularly,  of  Newark  where  about  125  men  were  referred 
during  the  week,  at  least  90  per  cent  of  whom  were  placed.  These  openings  were 
made  possible  largely  because  of  personal  solicitation  upon  two  industries.    *    *    * 


94  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

The  unemployment  situation  is  particularly  acute  in  Jersey  City  now.    The  same  i 

is  true  of  Camden.     In  the  former  it  is  temporary,  due  to  the  strike  of  the  Marine  | 
workers  in  and  about  the  port  of  New  York.     Many  Negroes  are  stevedores  on  both 

the  New  York  and  New  Jersey  sides  and  due  to  the  fact  that  transportation  ia  tied  i 

up  their  work  is  made  impossible.      In  Camden,  however,  the  lack  of  plants  running  j 

on  full  time  and  also  the  crowding  in  of  applicants  from  Philadelphia  make  it  difficult  i 

to  do  much  placing.  i 


The  great  problem  with  which  I  am  most  concerned  at  the  present,  is  that  of  the 
returning  soldiers.  Many  commissioned  officers  and  also  many  men  who  distin- 
guished themselves  in  the  Fifteenth  and  Buffalo  regiments  are  New  Jersey  men. 
An  appreciable  number  of  these  fellows  are  especially  well  prepared.  I  mention 
two  or  three — an  illustrator  and  pen  and  pencil  etcher,  really  talented;  a  tractor 
operator,  graduate  of  the  Scientific  Course  at  Kutgers  College;  an  auditor,  near  com- 
pletion of  his  course  in  the  New  York  School  of  Finance.  For  the  tractor  operator,  I 
have  made,  I  believe,  a  position;  but  the  remaining  two  are  unemployed  and  it  is 
rather  criminal  to  offer  to  such  men  the  most  ordinary  opportunities  we  have. 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  NEW  YORK. 

Owing  to  special  complications  in  the  New  York  situation  no  State 
conference  was  held.  There  was  such  delay  in  getting  the  situation 
in  hand  that  the  supervisor  of  Negro  economics,  Mr.  Jesse  O.  Thomas, 
did  not  enter  upon  duty  until  September,  1918,  just  two  months  be- 
fore the  signing  of  the  armistice,  and  his  services  were  discontinued 
because  of  lack  of  funds  after  the  end  of  that  fiscal  year.  A  New 
York  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  was  proposed  in  coopera- 
tion with  the  United  States  Employment  Service  and  the  New  York 
City  Employment  Service  and  with  the  supervising  commissioner  of 
the  New  York  State  Industrial  Commission,  but  this  committee  did 
not  get  fully  to  work  before  the  readjustment  came  in  the  finance 
and  plans  of  the  United  States  Emplo}Tiient  Service,  under  which  the 
activities  were  carried  on.  A  branch  office  of  the  United  States  Em- 
ployment Service  was  opened  in  the  Harlem  district  jointly  with  the 
State  bureau  of  employment  of  the  State  industrial  commission,  under 
Supt.  Prince  L.  Edwards,  and  supervision  given  to  this  from  Oc- 
tober, 1918,  to  March,  1919,  and  much  work  was  done  in  meeting 
the  difficult  problems  of  placing  semiskilled  and  skilled  Negro  workers 
in  industrial  establishmentc  m  New  York  City  and  vicinity.  A 
large  number  of  these  men  where  returned  Negro  soldiers.  The 
Submarine  Boat  Corporation  may  be  mentioned,  particularly,  as  hav-. 
ing  taken  into  employment  a  number  of  men  of  technical  training 
and  experience.  Large  numbers  of  the  returning  Negro  soldiers,  both 
New  York  residents  and  those  from  other  places,  called  for  special 
service  from  the  placement  agencies  developed  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment and  the  State  employment  department.  The  supervisor  of 
Negro  economics  for  New  York  gave  special  help  in  the  development 
of  this  work.  A  survey  was  made  of  labor  conditions  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  in  April,  1919,  showing  considerable  unemployment  because  of 
the  closing  dowm  of  munition  plants  and  because  oi  the  military  de- 
mobilization returning  many  men  from  overseas.  Unskilled  Negro 
labor,  however,  could  be  placed  without  very  much  difficulty,  but 
semiskilled  and  skilled  Negro  workmen  here,  as  in  other  places  in  the 
State,  found  great  difficulty  in  finding  employment.  Very  few  in- 
dustrial plants  in  the  city  employed  colored  women.  Some  of  the 
firms,  although  employing  thousands  of  workers,  employed  no  colored 
or  only  a  few,  and  these  only  m  the  menial  occupations  such  as  maids 
porters,  janitors,  or  unskilled  laborers.  Similar  surveys  were  made 
m  Rochester,  Albany,  and  New  York  City  and  environs.  Both  in 
New  York  City,  Buffalo,  and  other  parts  oi  the  State  the  Negro  serv- 
ice of  the  department  was  heartily  received  by  both  white  and  col- 
ored citizens,  but  only  got  well  started  before  curtailment  of  appro- 
priations made  it  necessary  to  discontinue  its  preparations. 

95 


96  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

Investigations  were  made  of  charges  of  discrimination  against  col- 
ored workers  and  steps  taken,  in  each  case  where  the  facts  warranted, 
to  remove  the  handicap.  When  the  housing  situation  began  to  be 
acute  the  supervisor  made  a  survey  of  important  cities  of  the  State 
to  ascertain  the  exact  condition  as  it  related  to  the  Negro  wage 
earners  with  the  view  to  assisting  the  United  States  Homes  Regis- 
tration Service  in  developing  home-finding  facilities,  if  thought  ad- 
visable. 

Among  the  many  organizations  giving  active  cooperation  special 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  National  Association  of  Colored 
Women  and  its  president,  Mi's.  Talbert,  whose  particular  activity  was 
in  the  field  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  Mi's.  Annette  W.  Erdmann,  of  the 
industrial  committee  of  the  New  York  City  Urban  League,  whose  un- 
tiring effort  and  hearty  zeal  were  largely  responsible  for  getting  such 
results  as  were  possible  under  the  complicated  difficulties  and  con- 
ditions. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

North  Carolina  was  selected  as  the  State  in  which  the  initial  effort 
of  the  Department  of  Labor  should  be  made,  and  its  program  estab- 
lished for  promoting  and  fostering  the  welfare  of  Negro  wage  earners 
through  the  special  ser^ace  of  Negro  economics.  Consequently,  fol- 
lowing an  official  trip  of  the  Director  of  Negto  Economics  into  impor- 
tant points  in  the  State  a  conference  of  representative  white  and 
colored  citizens  was  called  by  Hon.  T.  W.  Bickett,  governor  of  North 
Carolina,  on  June  19,  1918.  There  were  present  at  this  conference, 
which  was  held  in  the  office  of  the  governor,  17  of  the  most  sub- 
stantial Negro  citizens  from  all  parts  of  the  State  and  five  white 
citizens,  as  described  in  Chapter  II.  At  the  close  of  the  meeting  the 
governor  appomted  a  temporary  committee  which  drafted  a  consti- 
tution provided  for  the  Negro  Workers  Advisory  Committee,  and  for 
an  organization  of  local  county  and  city  committees.  The  w^orking 
plan  of  organization,  with  slight  modifications  and  adjustments,  which 
served  as  a  model  for  the  development  of  voluntary  field  organiza- 
tions in  other  States,  has  been  previously  explamed  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  activities  in  other  States. 

Before  discussing  the  subsequent  steps  of  organization  and  activity 
in  North  Carolina,  brief  attention  is  here  given  to  a  few  general  and 
specific  mdustrial  and  agricultural  situations  which  obtamed  m  North 
Carolina. 

These  situations  are  cited  for  the  purpose  of  showmg  the  wide 
scope  of  the  field  of  Negro  work  into  which  the  policies  and  plans  of 
the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  were  to  be  carried. 

The  chief  occupations  of  Negro  women  were  m  the  field  of  agri- 
culture, laundry  work,  domestic  service,  some  work  m  spuming  mills 
(and  some  in  hosiery  and  underwear),  and  work  m  tobacco  factories. 
There  was  a  scarcity  of  female  labor  and  on  that  account  a  number 
of  silk  mills  had  been  closed.  The  cotton-mill  season  extends  from 
May  to  September,  and  the  tobacco  season  from  September  to  April. 
In  many  instances  the  homes  of  workers  were  of  a  poor  t}^e;  the 
streets  and  sidewalks  fronting  such  homes  were  unpaved  and  poorly 
lighted.  Surface  drainage  existed  and  general  sanitation  was  inade- 
quate in  some  cases.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  large  numbers 
of  well-cared-for  homes  in  communities  of  intelligent  and  progressive 
Negroes. 

In  one  North  Carolma  city  it  was  reported  that  a  Negi'o  union  had 
been  organized  to  which  the  white  workers  objected.  At  New  Bern, 
lumber  mdustries  emploj^mg  large  numbers  of  Negroes  were  re- 
ported as  havmg  "working  conditions  which  were  mipleasant." 
At  Wilmmgton  Negroes  were  employed  m  the  shipyards,  but  only 
in  the  miskilled  occupations.  At  various  other  points  in  North 
Carolina  Negroes  foimd  employment  in  tanneries,  hosiery  mills, 
guano  plants,  box  factories,  and  the  like.  Throughout  the  State 
1989°— 21 7  97 


98  THE   NEGRO   AT  AVORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

there  were  found  a  number  of  physicians,  dentists,  druggists,  and  a 
more  than  usual  ownership  of  store  and  office  buildings.  At  Kingston 
5,000  Negro  women  and  children  were  reported  working  in  tobacco 
factories.  At  Wajiiesville  there  were  found  mill  girls,  garment  work- 
ers, and  a  few  clerks,  organized  and  unorganized.  As  a  general 
situation  throughout  the  State,  Negro  labor  was  much  in  demand 
and  was  affected  by  the  usual  factors — (a)  the  union,  (b)  low  wages, 
(c)  housing  conditions,  (d)  health,  (e)  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment, (/)  the  general  competition  between  white  and  colored  workers. 

Follo\\dng  the  conference  the  plan  for  cooperation, and  for  the  sub- 
sequent formation  and  activity  of  a  State  committee  and  subsidiary 
county  and  city  committees  was  perfected.  Among  the  early  agen- 
cies of  cooperation  may  be  mentioned  the  United  States  Public 
Reserve,  the  State  department  of  education,  the  rank  and  file  of 
Negro  colleges  and  universities  in  North  Carolina,  chambers  of  com- 
merce and  the  Negro  private  organizations,  including  the  church. 
An  initial  State  committee  of  29  substantial  Negro  citizens  from 
various  sections  of  the  State  was  formed.  The  membership  of  the 
State  committee  and  its  executive  board  represent  the  following 
cities:  Wmston-Salem,  Wadesboro,  Winton,  Oxford,  Charlotte,  Hen- 
derson, Raleigh,  Greensboro,  Rocky  Mount,  Tarboro,  Salisbury, 
Chadbourn,  New  Bern,  Lumberton,  Bricks,  Lexington,  Durham, 
Method,  Goldsboro,  Wilmmgton,  Wilson,  and  Asheyille,  thus  bring- 
ing into  play  the  influence  and  forces  of  the  best  citizens  throughout 
the  State.  This  committee  was  supplemented  by  interested  white 
citizens,  who  became  cooperating  members. 

This  State  committee  and  the  subsidiary  county  committee,  after 
adopting  the  constitution,  started  out  hi  their  activities  under  the 
supervision  of  Dr.  A.  M.  Moore,  who  was  appointed  Supervisor  of 
Negro  Economics  and  special  agent  of  the  United  States  Employ- 
ment Service.  It  should  be  stated  that  Dr.  Moore  served  the  depart- 
ment tliroughout  the  entire  period  of  the  war  and  the  following  seven 
months  as  a  dollar-a-year  man. 

The  early  formation  of  county  and  city  committees  included  the 
following  counties :  Guilford,  Craven,Vance,  Rockmgham,  Buncombe, 
Granville,  Forsyth,  Beaufort,  Durham,  Hertford,  Alamance,  and 
Edgecombe,  Halifax,  and  Nash  combined.  Wlien  the  work  was 
closed  on  June  30,  1919,  names  had  been  submitted  covering  prac- 
tically every  county  in  the  State. 

Inasmuch  as  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  was  in  the  imme- 
diate office  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  who  was  also  chief  adminis- 
trative ofliicer  for  the  United  States  Employment  Service  as  well  as 
all  the  other  departmental  bureaus  and  divisions,  it  was  practicable 
that  the  North  Carolma  Negro  work,  as  did  the  work  in  other  States, 
should  have  a  close  relationship  to  the  L^nited  States  Emplo>Tnent 
Service  in  that  State.  Consequently  under  the  plan  of  organization 
for  the  State,  the  Federal  Du-ector  of  the  United  States  Emplo^mient 
Service  became  an  advisory  member  of  the  State  Negro  Workers.' 
Advisorv  Committee.  Also  a  close  relationship  with  the  governor, 
the  chairman  of  the  State  Council  of  Defense,  and  other  white  men 
acting  as  advisers  to  other  committees,  was  perfected  and  the  follow- 
ing initial  recommendation  for  North  Carolma  was  gradually  worked 
out  and  approved: 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  99 

1.  Workers  appointed  for  special  activities  among  Negro  wage  earners  will  work 
under  the  authority  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service  to  give  them  official 
standing,  \\'ith  cooperation  and  supervision  of  the  Federal  State  director. 

2.  The  work  shall  be  undertaken  with  the  advice  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics. 

3.  Matters  calling  for  the  expenditure  of  funds  shall  be  submitted  with  the  approval 
of  the  Federal  director  and  with  the  advice  of  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics. 

4.  All  work  carried  on  which  relates  to  the  Employment  Service  shall  be  under- 
taken with  the  approval  of  the  Federal  State  director. 

These  plans  of  course  were  ''overhead"  plans,  but  they  covered  the 
many  details  which  became  properly  applicable  to  local  committees 
in  the  State  as  they  were  found.  In  order  to  bring  the  plans  to  the 
attention  of  the  public  the  special  agent  succeeded  in  getting  in  close 
touch  with  the  white  and  Negro  members  throughout  the  State, 
and  in  making  arrangements  for  a  publicity  service  which  would  not 
conflict  with  the  Information  and  Education  Service  of  the  depart- 
ment. 

Among  some  of  the  earlier  problems  were  found  (1)  that  many 
North  Carolina  laborers  had  oeen  recruited  through  employment 
agencies  and  in  an  indiscriminating  way  many  of  the  "shiitless" 
and  "unstable"  had  been  imported  into  North  Carolina  cities;  (2)  no 
particular  opportunity  had  been  offered  to  thrifty,  dependable  work- 
men to  buy  homes  and  to  become  permanent  residents  of  the  State. 
In  subsequent  plans  of  publicity  and  contact  these  two  problems 
were  dealt  with  by  the  North  Carolina  special  agent  and  the  close  of 
the  work  found  at  each  particular  point  but  a  few  scattered  persons 
who  might  be  designated  ''shiftless." 

The  Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics,  having  business  interests  of 
his  own,  soon  found  it  necessary  to  have  an  assistant  who  could 
actively  canvass  cities  throughout  the  State.  Mr.  R.  McCants 
Andrews  was  subsequently  detailed  for  such  assistance  work. 
Of  the  early  problems  which  he  faced  there  came  report  of  race 
friction  in  a  city  of  eastern  North  Carolina  at  a  point  in  which  there 
were  members  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committees.  An 
investigation  was  made  as  to  the  nature  of  such  race  friction 
and  valuable  advice  was  given  both  to  the  employing  class  and 
to  the  working  class,  which  resulted  in  removal  of  racial  fric- 
tion. In  this  connection  valuable  assistance  in  the  matter  of 
sentiment  was  given  by  a  leading  North  Carolina  paper,  to 
the  attention  of  which  was  called  the  value  of  mediation  between 
white  workers,  white  employers  and  Negro  workei-s  followed  by 
a  spirit  of  conciliation  and  cooperation  and  the  abilty  to  see 
both  sides  of  any  issue.  It  was  pointed  out  also  that  the  com- 
mon interest  of  the  white  employer  who  wants  to  engage  the  service 
which  the  Negro  wage  earner  has  to  offer  will  make  the  adjustment  of 
the  labor  situation  a  most  important  one.  This  paper  gave  publicity 
not  only  to  the  comment  above  quoted  but  also  to  subsequent 
comment  and  advice  tending  to  create  a  better  feeling  among  the 
employing  and  working  classes  of  North  Carolina. 

In  carrying  out  the  plan  of  work  of  the  North  Carolina  committee, 
one  of  the  first  steps  was  for  the  supervisor  to  inaugurate  an  educa- 
tional campaign  wherever  practical  among  Negro  workers  at  the 
various  points  in  the  State.  Short  itineraries  were  arranged  and  the 
supervisor  was  given  permission  to  address  groups  of  workers  at 
man}^  large  plants,  with  specific  health  questions,  ideals  of  efficiency 
and  recreational  activities,  in  order  to  preserve  the  morale  and  com- 


-A 


100  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

Eetcncy  of  Negro  workers.  Although  in  many  instances  employers 
ad  been  slow  to  put  on  foot  similar  programs  and  thereby  to  bring 
about  a  contented  group  of  workers,  there  were  many  leading  plants 
in  the  State  which  had,  from  the  beginning,  recognized  the  need  of 
such  an  institution  as  would  make  their  workers  contented.  A  superin- 
tendent of  one  of  the  large  North  Carolina  phmts  had  under  liis  su- 
pervision about  800  Negro  employees,  who,  in  fact,  practically  made 
up  one  of  the  small  villages  of  the  State.  In  the  early  formation  of  one 
01  the  county  committees  this  superintendent  saw  a  splendid  oppor- 
tunity presented  in  being  able  to  link  up  his  plans  with  the  program  of 
work  oi  the  committee.  It  is  of  particular  interest,  in  this  connection, 
to  point  out  some  of  the  early  steps  which  his  plant  had  taken  in  an 
endeavor  to  preserve  contentment  among  the  workere.  It  was  esti- 
mated that  the  average  worker  at  this  plant  in  the  eight-hour  day 
was  earning  $100  a  month.  The  work  was  not  exhausting,  physi- 
cally, and  overtime  pay  was  allowed  to  good  workers.  The  plant 
in  question  was  equipped  with  steel  lockers,  porcelain  washbowls, 
shower  baths,  and  other  facilities  necessary  to  the  comfort  and  clean- 
liness of  its  workers,  white  and  colored.  Within  the  viUage  row  after 
row  of  new  houses  had  been  erected.  These  houses  were  modem 
and  sanitary,  with  running  water,  sewerage,  and  electric  lights. 
They  were  rented  to  workers  at  an  extremely  low  price  and  many 
had  been  purchased  on  a  ten-year  plan  which  the  company  had  ar- 
ranged in  order  to  increase  the  desire  for  permanent  residence.  The 
company  also  paid  for  a  nine-months  school  for  the  childi'en  of 
workere.  In  the  viUage  itself  Negroes  were  engaged  in  business 
enterprises  which  were  largely  patronized  by  workers  of  this  plant. 
A  modern  hospital  was  in  the  course  of  erection  and  two  churches 
had  been  planned. 

The  local  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee,  under  the  direction 
of  the  supervisor,  assisted  this  plant  in  a  further  educational  cam- 
paign to  promote  efficiency  and  thrift  among  the  Negro  workers. 
Intelligent  and  self-respecting  workers  were  solicited  and  the  even- 
tual outcome  of  assistance  given  by  the  local  committee  resulted  in 
the  company's  retaining  a  permanent  social  worker  who  has  charge 
of  a  program  in  behalf  of  the  welfare  of  these  workers. 

As  the  work  of  the  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  and  the  Negro 
workers'  advisory  committee  increased  in  scope  and  understanding, 
various  firms  called  upon  the  supervisor  and  his  assistant  for  advice  in 
the  formation  of  plans  for  the  higher  economic  status  of  their  workers. 
One  exceptionally  large  plant  invited  the  supervisor  and  the  director  of 
Negro  economics  to  outline  a  complete  program  of  welfare  for  its 
Negro  employees.  Such  a  plan  was  made  up  and  submitted,  and  it 
received  the  commendation  and  adoption  of  the  officials  of  the  firm. 
In  his  itineraries  the  assistant  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  car- 
ried the  program  of  the  department  int»  the  following  cities:  Durham, 
Badin,  Oxford,  Henderson,  Bricks,  Tarboro,  Dover,  New  Bern,  Bur- 
lington, Lexington,  Spencer,  Charlotte,  Statesville,  Hickory,  Morgan- 
ton,  Marion,  AsheviUe,  Wmston-Salem,  Sahsbury,  Raleigh,  and  High 
Point.  At  various  other  points  the  supervisor  and  his  assistant  visited 
Negro  schools,  making  addresses  and  increasing  the  desire  of  workers 
for  greater  efficiency  and  of  employers  for  greater  consideration  of 
their  workers. 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  101 

So  pleased  were  the  governor  and  other  State  officials  with  the 
work  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  that  the  governor  called, 
for  June  14,  1919,  the  annual  meeting  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  , 
committee,  at  which  time  the  State  supervisor  submitted  his  recom- 
mendations concerning  the  work.  Inasmuch  as  that  report  received 
the  universal  commendation  of  persons  throughout  the  State,  it  is 
given  in  full: 

[U.  S.  Department  of  Labor,  Office  of  Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics  for  North  Carolina,  Durham,  N.  C] 

HOW   TO    KEEP    NEGRO   LABOR. 

New  methods. — How  to  keep  the  Negro  workers  and  make  them  satisfied  with  their 
lot  is  the  problem  now  presented  to  the  South.  It  ought  not  be  difficult  of  solution. 
It  is  not  natural  for  the  Negroes  to  leave  their  old  homes  in  this  wholesale  fashion;  and 
they  really  do  not  want  to  go.  Some  planters  and  industrial  establishments  are  already 
dernonstrating  by  means  of  better  pay  and  greater  care  for  their  employees  what  such 
considerations  will  do  in  keeping  the  Negroes  loyally  at  work  in  the  South;  and  the 
more  efficient  Negro  schools  have  for  years  been  pointing  the  way. 

Constructive  possibilities.— The  improvement  of  race  relations  is  a  matter  of  time, 
and  rests  largely  on  the  satisfactory  solution  of  the  economic  problems  of  farm  life. 
Several  noteworthy  tendencies  were,  however,  noticeably  strengthened  by  the  loss  of 
Negro  labor.  The  first  of  these  was  the  tendency  of  the  leaders  of  the  two  races  to  draw 
closer  together.  Several  State-wide  and  county  meetings  were  held  to  discuss  the 
migration  and  the  grievances  of  the  Negro.  Until  more  interest  is  taken  in  theee 
meetings  by  the  white  leaders,  and  until  they  are  followed  by  constructive  programs 
for  betiter  law  enforcement  and  education  they  can  not  measurably  influence  the 
tendency  of  the  Negro  to  move. 

Holding  Negro  labor  on  the  farm. — There  is  a  general  agreement  that  friendly  personal 
interest,  absolute!}^  fair  dealing  in  all  business  transactions,  clear  understanding  of  the 
terms  of  the  contract  at  the  outset,  itemized  statements  of  indebtedness,  good  housing, 
and  encouragement  of  the  Negroes  to  raise  their  foodstuffs  as  far  as  possible,  taken 
together,  will  attract  and  hold  labor  on  farms. 

Majority  of  Negroes  are  workers. — Since  the  great  majority  of  Negroes  are  in  the  working 
class,  their  permanent  interests  are  as  laborers,  and  these  interests  are  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  li\dng  Avages  and  of  good  working  conditions. 

The  Negro's  value  to  North  Carolina. — There  is  no  question  as  to  the  value  of  the  Negro 
to  the  South;  but  circumstances  are  bringing  other  sections  to  an  appreciation  of  his 
value  also  and  the  Negro,  too,  is  coming  to  uderstand  something  of  his  worth  to  the 
community.  If  North  Carolina  would  keep  the  Negro  and  have  him  satisfied  she 
must  give  more  constructive  thought  than  has  been  her  custom  to  the  Negro  and  his 
welfare. 

The  outline  of  facts  stated  above  should  help  us  to  approach  our  local  problems  with 
greater  understanding,  greater  sympathy,  and  a  great  Avillingness  to  cooperate  in  their 
satisfactory  adjustment.  With  this  understanding  and  sympathy  we  are  better  able 
to  appreciate  the  statesmanlike  policy  of  the  Department  of  Labor  in  creating  and 
maintaining  the  work  of  Negro  economics. 

On  May  1,  1918,  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  Hon.  William  B.  Wilson,  realizing  that  the  , 
Negro  constitutes  about  one-seventh  of  the  total  working  population  of  the  country,  > 
appointed  a  Negro,  Dr.  George  E.  Haynes,  as  adAdsory  to  the  Secretary  with  the  title 
Director  of  Negi'o  Economics.  This  was  done  in  ordei  that  the  Negro  might  have  a 
representative  in  council  whenever  matters  affecting  his  welfare  were  being  consi- 
dered ;  and  that  more  extensiAO  plans  migh  t  be  developed  for  improving  his  efficiency 
and  production  in  agiiculture  and  industry. 

There  were  appointed  in  four  Southern  States  and  five  Northern  States  superAdsors 
of  Negro  economics  who  have  established  cooperative  committees  of  representative 
white  and  colored  citizens  to  work  out  together  the  local  labor  problems.  These 
Negro  workers'  adA'isory  committees,  as  they  are  called,  have  a  program  of  work  which 
is  carried  on  by  the  colored  members,  the  whites  serving  as  cooperating  members.  So 
successful  has  the  work  of  the  committees  proved  that  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics 
■  have  been  continued  for  the  important  work  of  reconstruction.  This  work  is  not  /_ 
separate  from  the  other  work  of  the  department,  but  is  carried  on  as  an  integral 
part.  The  superA-isors  are  under  the  authority  of  the  Federal  directors  of  the 
United  States  Employment  Service. 


102  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAE. 

NortJf  Carolina  led  the  way.— On  June  19,  1918,  Gov.  T.  W.  Bickett,  called  a  con- 
ference in  his  office  which  was  attended  by  17  of  the  most  substantial  Negjo  citizens 
from  all  parts  of  the  State  and  5  white  citizens.  Out  of  this  meetinp;  came  the  plan 
of  Negro  workers'  ad\'i8ory  committees,  which  is  now  operating;  in  nine  States.  A 
State  Negro  workers'  committee  of  leading  Negro  men  and  women  of  North  Carolina 
was  appointed  and  plans  were  formed  for  the  creation  of  county  and  city  committees, 
.^^here  were  on  April  1  of  the  present  year  25  of  these  committees  actively  at  work  in 
our  State. 

The  fv  per  visor's  report. — The  8uper^d8or  of  Negro  Economics  for  North  Carolina  and 
the  assistant  supervisor  have  \-isited  23  counties  since  their  organization,  holding 
conferences  with  leading  white  and  colored  citizens  which  have  V)een  most  helpful. 
On  the  basis  of  this  personal  investigation  thionghout  the  State,  the  supervisor  \nshe9 
to  present  imder  separate  headings,  t  summary  of  conditions  as  foimd: 

White  employers  awl  liherol  vhtte  citizens. — There  is  the  greatest  cordiality  and  \nll- 
K  ingness  to  cooperate  upon  the  part  of  these  persons.  In  many  instances  they  rivaled 
the  colored  citizens  in  spirit  and  enthusiasm.  They  spoke  freely  as  well  as  the  Ne- 
groes, and  are  asking  on  eveiy  hand  to  be  called  upon  for  cooperation.  Some  of  them 
came  from  the  rural  districts  and  from  near-by  towTis  to  attend  the  conferences. 

Many  employers  are  already  offering  special  inducements  to  their  Negro  workers. 
For  example,  a  cotton  oil  company  is  giA'ing  fi'ee  life  insm-ance  for  S500  to  all  who 
remain  in  its  employ  for  six  months;  many  older  employees  have  been  giA-en  fi'ee 
insurance  for  .?1.000.  Knitting  mill  companies  are  carefully  selecting  colored  girla 
for  their  plants  and  are  giving  employment  at  good  wages  throughout  the  year.  Lum- 
ber companies  are  giving  bonuses  to  men  who  go  to  the  lumber  camps. 

The  labor  situation  in  North  Carolimi. — Broadly  speaking  there  is  a  scarcity  of  Negro 
bbor  in  the  State.  All  the  industries  are  feeling  this  at  present.  But  a  greater 
suffering  wiU  be  felt  in  the  fall  when  it  is  time  for  crop  gathering.  The  farmers  are 
suffering  most.     Cotton  is  standing  in  the  fields  in  all  parts  of  the  State  from  last  year. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  leaders  of  white  workmen  cooperate  with  our  committees. 

SPECIAL  PROBLEMS  INVOLVING  NEGRO  LABOR. 

1.  Tobacco,  guano,  and  cotton-oil  industries.  Tobacco  work  is  seasonal;  the  wage 
are  high  and  no  great  intelligence  is  required  for  much  of  the  work.  When  the  gre^ 
warehouses  open,  crowds  of  workers  leave  year-round  industries,  often  demoralizing 
the  latter.  The  work  of  the  industries  here  mentioned  is  dirty  and  does  not  invite 
workers  of  any  particular  skill.  It  is  hard  to  promote  cleaniness,  efficiency,  and  thrift 
among  workers  whose  lives  are  haphazard,  who  come  and  go  through  the  streets  in 
their  working  clothes  and  who  are  not  generally  considered  as  advanced  workers. 

2.  Many  of  the  seasonal  plants  rim  12-hoiu-  shifts,  often  doubling  the  work  day  of 
the  most  faithful  employees.  This  leads  to  the  workers  "lajdng  off"  on  Saturdays 
and  Mondays.  In  one  12-hom'  plant  visited  the  colored  workers  had  "struck"  for 
Saturdays  off. 

3.  Lumber  camps:  In  some  instances  the  quarters  provided  for  logging  and  mill 
camps  have  not  attracted  respectable  workers  and  their  families.  "Floaters"  and 
crap-shooters  were  mainly  the  classes  who  were  \villing  to  go  to  such  camps.     Their 

^work  has,  of  course,  not  been  satisfactory.  On  the  other  hand,  one  concern  Aisited 
had  made  its  location  a  real  commimity  and  stimulated  local  pride  in  it.  The  manager 
of  this  concern  spoke  of  his  success  in  getting  and  holding  labor  of  a  splendid  class  in 
his  little  toAATi. 

4.  Hosiery  mills:  The  plants  visited  are  clean  and  sanitary,  well-lighted,  and  safe 
They  pay  good  wages  and  run  all  the  year.  The  ownei-s  are  trying  to  select  their 
workers  carefully  and  to  encoiu-age  the  development  of  character.  But  Aery  few  of 
them  have  been  highly  successful  in  getting  an  adequate  force;  and  most  of  the  girls 
leave  as  soon  as  the  tobacco  work  opens.  Some  of  these  plants  haA-e  never  been  able 
to  increase  their  output;  and  one  of  them  is  still  compelled  to  close  on  Saturdays 
because  of  a  general  shortage  of  girls. 

HOW  OUR  NEGRO  WORKERS*  ADVISORY  COMMITTEES  CAN  MEET  THESE  PROBLEMS. 

In  line  wdth  our  official  program  of  work  our  committees  should — 

(1)  Promote  the  efficiency  of  colored  workers  in  order  to  overcome  the  loss  from 
shortage  of  labor. 

(2)  Encourage  the  use  of  farm  machinery  to  increase  farm  production  and  to  create 
a  surplus  of  farm  labor  for  use  in  the  harA-est  time. 

(3)  PrcA^ail  upon  white  leaders  as  well  as  white  employers  to  cooperate  with  our 
committees. 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  103 

(4)  Encoxirage  white  employers  in  the  tobacco",  guano,  and  cotton  oil  industries  to 
make  the  work  as  clean  and  as  pleasing  as  possible.  The  instiiUation  of  clothes  lockers 
and  waslirooms  \\i\\  impress  the  workers  with  the  advantage  of  coming  and  going  from 
vork  in  clean  clothes. 

(.'))  Advise  Asith  employers  whose  plants  are  rimning  long  hom-s  as  to  whether 
shorter  hoiu-s  will  not  mean  gi-eater  efiiciency  and  greater  regularity.  Many  workers 
are  now  averaging  only  four  days  a  week;  the  proportion  of  "laying  off"  on  Satur- 
days and  Mondays  is  distressingly  large.  y 

(6)  Pay  close  attention  to  seasonal  plants,  following  especially  shortage  and  sm-plus,  7>. 
and  endeavoring  to  assist  in  transfer  of  workers  to  new  jobs  as  these  plants  close.     The 
United  States  Employment  Service  shoiUd  be  aided  in  recruiting  Negi-o  workers  so 

^s  not  to  draw  away  workers  from  "year-roimd"  industries.  Reports  as  to  shortage 
and  surplus  should  be  made  regularly  by  the  committeemen  to  the  office  of  the  super- 
visor so  that  colored  workers  may  secm-e  jobs  without  going  gi-eat  distances. 

(7)  Suggest  to  employers  of  lumber  concerns  the  development  of  commimity  life 
in  their  camps,  with  better  housing  and  family  settlements. 

(8)  Call  to  the  attention  of  steady  and  capable  yomig  women  in  the  community 
who  are  not  employed  the  excellent  sanitary  condition  of  the  knitting  mills  and 
opportunity  for  steady  employment  in  them. 

It  is  wgeutly  hoped  that  all  public  spirited  citizens  of  both  races  who  have  at  heart 
the  agricultural  and  industrial  expansion  of  om-  State,  and  who  realize  that  such  ex-  ^f 
pansion  and  development  can  only  come  through  the  improvement  of  Negro  labor 
\vi\\  sustain  this  far-sighted  effort  of  the  Department  of  Laboi  and  will  give  active 
support  to  the  program  of  work  of  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics,  and  to  the  under- 
signed, 

A.  M.  Moore,  M.  D., 
Special  Agent  and  Supervisor 
of  Negro  Economics  for  North  Carolina, 

Durham,  N.  C. 
June,  1919. 

It  is  deemed  to  be  in  place  to  quote  commendations  from  Hon.  T.  W. 
Bickett,  governor  of  North  Carolina,  regarding  the  Negro  economics 
work  in  his  State: 

There  is  the  greatest  cordiality  and  willingness  on  the  part  of  the  white  employers 
and  Liberal  white  citizens  to  cooperate  mth  the  Negroes.  In  many  instances  they 
rival  the  colored  citizens  in  spirit  and  enthusiasm.  They  speak  freely  and  are  askino- 
on  every  hand  to  be  called  into  cooperation.     *    *    *  ° 

This  re])ort  sets  out  that  in  many  industries  and  on  the  farms  intelligent  efforts  are 
being  made  to  improve  Li\ing  conditions  of  the  Negro  and  to  afford  him  every  incentive 
to  put  forth  his  very  best  efforts.  In  one  plant  the  committee  devised  a  plan  to  pub- 
lish an  honor  roll  containing  the  names  of  all  Negroes  who  worked  steadily  six  days 
in  the  week.  Under  this  system  the  loafing  list  was  decreased  57  per  cent  and  there 
was  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  steady  workers.    *    *    * 

If  ever>'  man,  black  and  white,  in  the  United  States,  could  read  and  digest  this  V 
report,  it  would  go  a  great  way  toward  solving  all  oiu-  questions.     I  shall  keep  and  use 
this  report  as  a  basis  for  my  futiure  work.    *    *    * 

The  Chief  Justice  of  the  State,  the  Federal  Director  of  the  United 
States  employment  Service  and  a  number  of  employers  all  expressed 
themselves  as  profoundly  impressed  with  the  scope  and  character 
of  the  work  done  by  the  committee. 

The  North  Carolina  Farmers'  Conference  on  Labor  Problems,  held 
at  Bricks,  N.  C,  April  21,  1919,  brought  to  the  attention  of  the 
department  its  report  and  recommendations  made  to  the  State  Negro 
workers'  advisory  committee  concerning  farm  labor  questions  as  they 
affected  Negroes  in  the  State.  This  report  and  its  recommendations 
are  deemed  to  be  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  its  inclusion  in 
this  report,  and  attention  is  therefore  called  to  the  specific  conditions 
and  recommendations  of  the  farmers'  conference. 


104  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

1.  Greater  use  of  farm  machinery: 

(a)  This  committee  should  encourage  greater  use  of  farm  machinery  as  a  means 
of  creating  a  surplus  of  farm  la})or. 

1.  The  State  and  Federal  governments  should  be  urged  to  aid  the  farmers 

in  securing  farm  tractors,  ditchers,  tobacco  setters,  potato  planters, 
and  other  needed  implements. 

2.  The  owners  of  adjoining  farms  should  be  encouraged  to  purchase  ma- 

chinery jointly. 

2.  Cooperative  undertakings: 

(a)  Progressive  farmers  are  running  cooperative  cotton  gins,  sawmills,  and 
warehouses  and  are  purchasing  guano  and  fertilizer  together.  Such 
efforts  are  not  only  meritorious  as  business  enterprises;  they  often  help 
the  farmer  to  market  his  products  quickly,  obtain  a  money  surplus,  and 
improve  his  farm. 

(5)  Cooperative  harvesting  should  be  encouraged  in  order  to  save  the  crops. 

This  practice  already  exists  in  some  communities. 

3.  Improvement  0  farm  life: 

(a)  Every  possible  encouragement  should  be  given  to  the  improvement  of  farm 
life. 

1.  This  committee  shall  cooperate  with  organizations  forwarding  "after- 

the-war"  programs  to  render  rural  life  more  pleasant  and  profitable. 

2.  Plantation  owners  and  farmers  who  employ  Negro    enants    hould  be 

urged  to  prox'ide  them  with  good  homes. 

3.  Full   information    concerning   Government   Farm    Loans   should    be 

secured  and  given  to  the  farmers. 

4.  Athletics  and  outdoor  sports  and  all  forms  of  regulated  amusements 

should  be  encouraged,  as  well  as  indoor  entertainments  at  schools 
and  churches  for  ^vinter  evenings. 

4.  Student  farm  labor: 

(a)  It  should  be  the  aim  of  this  committee  to  divert  such  student  labor  from  the 
cities,  for  the  summer  vacations,  as  can  be  more  profitably  employed 
on  the  farms. 

1.  Many  students  are  now  realizing  from  $300  to  $500  on  two  (2)  acres  of 

tobacco,  haA^ing  sufficient  time  left  to  do  general  farm  work  also. 

2.  Children  of  farm  owners  or  tenants  farming  on  their  own  account  should 

be  encouraged  to  remain  at  home,  and  parents  and  employers  who 
receive  the  services  of  students  should  make  such  settlements  with 
them  as  will  adequately  provide  for  the  next  year's  schooling. 

5.  Distribution  of  labor: 

(a)  Efforts  should  be  made  to  recruit  workers  for  the  farms  when  seasonal  indus- 

tries close  in  the  cities. 

(b)  Cooperate  with  the  nearest  United  States  EmplovTnent  Service  office. 

6.  Education: 

(a)  White  farmer  and  employer: 

1.  White  farmers  and  employers  of  Negro  farm  labor  should  be  urged  to 
cooperate  with  Negro  fanners  in  promoting  the  common  interests  of 
the  rural  communities. 

(b)  Negro  farmer  and  farm  laborer: 

1.  Negro  farmers  and  farm  laborers  should  be  urged  to  cooperate  with 

white  farmers  and  employers  in  promoting  the  common  interests  of 
the  rural  communities. 

2.  Lectures  in  colored  churches  and  lodges  on  modem  farm  methods,  use 

of  farm  machinery,  improvement  of  farm  life,  race  pride,  industry 
and  thrift,  etc. 

3.  Farmers'  conferences. 

4.  "  Buy-a-farm  "  movement. 

7.  Farm  demonstrators: 

(a)  City  and  county  officials  should  be  urged  to  provide  funds  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  Negro  farm  demonstrators. 

(6)  The  breeding  of  registered  live  stock  should  be  extended  under  the  direction 

of  the  county  farm  demonstrators. 

(c)  Siu-veys  should  be  made  as  to  shortage  and  surplus  of  labor  before  planting 

and  harvesting  crops  so  that  acreage  might  be  reduced  or  extended  and 
crops  saved. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  OHIO. 

The  number  of  Negro  migrants  who  settled  in  the  principal  indus- 
trial centers  of  Ohio  were  large.  Estimates  secured  upon  visits  to  those 
centers  by  investigators  of  the  Department  of  Labor  in  1917  give  some 
definite  notion  of  these  numbers.  The  followm^  figm'es,  of  course, 
are  largely  general  estimates  and  probably  should  be  double,  and, 
m  some  cases,  increased  to  a  large  extent  as  of  September  1,  1919. 

Cleveland 10,  000 

Cincinnati 6,  000 

Columbus 3, 000 

Dayton 3,000 

Toledo 3,  000 

Canton 3,  000 

Akron 3,  000 

Middletown ' 1,  000 

Camp  Sherman,  Chillicothe 2,  000 

Portsmouth 300 

Baltimore  &  Oliio  camps : 400 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  camps 800 

Contractors 1 ,  000 

Traction  companies 1, 000 

Total 137,  500 

It  will  be  noticed  that  Alliance,  Bellaire,  Hamilton,  Ironton,  Lima, 
Springfield,  Steubenville,  Youngstown,  and  Zanesville  were  not 
included  m  this  survey.  These  pomts,  as  well  as  other  cities, 
contained  a  large  number  of  iron,  steel,  coal,  coke,  and  other 
industries  which  called  for  the  kind  of  labor  which  Negroes  were 
readily  able  to  supply.  As  the  figures  mdicate,  lar^e  numbers 
of  Negroes  migrated  mto  Ohio  and  were  distributed  over  it  generally. 
Therefore,  this  State  received  early  consideration  m  the  program  of 
the  Department  of  Labor, 

Organization — Supervisor  of  Negro  economics. — The  departmental 
State  supervisor  of  Ne^ro  economics,  Charles  E.  Hall,  was  appointed 
with  the  view  of  general  efficiency  to  the  department  and  to  the  State 
of  Ohio.  For  more  than  18  years  Mr.  Hall  had  been  an  employee  of 
the  Bureau  of  the  Census  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Com- 
merce, and  had  had  considerable  experience  in  field  work.  He  had 
supervised  the  gathermg  and  preparation  of  statistical  material  relat- 
mg  to  the  manuf  acturmg  mterests  and  to  the  Negro  population  m  the 
United  States.  He  had  received  special  commendation  from  the 
Department  of  Commerce  for  this  work.  During  1916,  the  early 
period  of  Negro  migration  to  the  North,  Mr.  Hall  had  been  detailed 
to  the  Department  of  Labor  for  field  investigations.  His  valuable 
work  m  a  report  of  more  than  ordmary  worth,  served  as  a  basis  for 
first  steps  by  the  Department  of  Labor. 

1  Negro  Migration  in  1916-1917,  Appendix  to  report  of  Francis  E.  Tyson.     Government   Printing 
OfBce,  Washmgton. 

105 


106  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

Being  a  native  of  the  Middle  West,  Mr.  Hall  enjoyed  a  wide  con- 
tact with  public  officials  and  representative  citizen,  through  whom 
it  was  believed  the  fullest  cooperation  could  be  obtained.  He  took 
the  field  in  Ohio  on  June  17,  1918,  just  preceding  the  State  conference. 
The  later  success  of  his  work  gave  substantial  mdorsement  to  the 
judgment  of  the  department  in  assignmg  him  to  Ohio. 

Conference  on  Negro  labor. — FoUowmg  the  assignment  of  Super- 
visor Hall  to  the  State,  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States 
Employment  Service,  ])lans  for  the  Ohio  conference  on  Negro  labor 
were  started  with  the  hearty  cooperation  of  both  State  and  Federal 
officials,  the  State  Council  of  National  Defejise  and  a  number  of 
private  citizens  and  agencies.  Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
personal  interest  and  attention  of  Gov.  James  M.  Cox  and  Mr.  Fred  D. 
Croxton,  chairman  of  the  State  Council  of  National  Defense. 

The  conference  was  called  by  the  Department  of  Labor  to  get 
action  upon  those  things  that  needed  to  be  done  m  Ohio  to  pro- 
mote the  welfare  of  wage  erners,  and  to  stimulate  the  ])roduction  for 
winning  the  war.  Dr.  F.  L.  Hagerty,  professor  of  sociology,  Ohio 
State  University,  presided.  After  considerable  discussion  and  a  num- 
ber of  addresses  the  body  of  the  work  of  the  conference  was  done, 
through  committees,  reports  from  which  were  adopted  for  the  further 
guidance  of  the  department's  work  in  the  State. 

Some  of  the  committees'  recommendations  were  as  follows; 

1.  Investigation  into  the  difficulties  arising  from  discrimination  against  Negroes 
by  local  labor  unions. 

2.  Efforts  to  stabilize  labor  by  giving  new  opportunities  for  promotion,  by  standardiz- 
ing wages,  by  reclassifying  work,  by  the  employment  of  colored  foremen,  and  by, 
educational  work  among  the  working  classes  with  the  view  of  making  them  satisfied 
with  their  occupations. 

3.  An  endeavor  to  employ  the  Negro  worker  in  full  accordance  with  his  fitness. 

4.  The  opening  of  new  places  of  employment  in  keeping  with  the  fitness  of  Negro 
wage-earners. 

5.  The  conducting  of  welfare  work  in  plants  and  factories. 

6.  The  setting  up  of  facilities  for  community  recreation.  ^ 

7.  Increased  attention  to  rooms,  lockers,  ventilation,  and  adequate  space  for  em-  | 
ployees. 

8.  Special  attention  to  health  problems. 

The  committee  on  industrial  conditions  reported  to  the  conference 
that  there  was  sufficient  work  to  be  secured  in  the  State  for  Negro 
laborers  in  industry  doing  Government  and  other  work  and  that  the 
Negro  laborers  were  generally  reliable.  It  also  reported  that  in  some 
industries  there  was  discrimination  as  to  the  kinds  of  work  and  con-  j 
ditions  under  which  the  work  was  done  with  reference  to  Negro 
laborers.  The  committee  stated  that  the  demand  for  labor  was  more 
than  the  supply  and  in  order  that  the  Government  might  get  the 
greatest  return  out  of  the  amount  of  the  actual  and  potential  energy 
of  the  Negro  workmen  it  was  recommended  that  where  skilled  Negro 
laborers  were  doing  unskilled  work  because  of  their  inability  to  secure 
work  at  the  skilled  trades  on  account  of  color  that  the  Government 
adopt  rules  for  governmental  contracts  and  make  a  special  effort  to 
see  that  every  such  man  be  given  the  opportunity  to  do  that  for 
which  he  was  best  fitted.  The  final  recommendation  of  this  com- 
mittee closed  with  the  averment  that  "race  or  color  should  be  no  bar 
to  advancement." 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD   WAR.  107 

The  committee  on  organization  adopted  with  modifications  to  meet 
local  conditions  for  use  in  Ohio  the  form  of  constitution  for  the  Negro 
workers'  advisory  committee  which  the  department  had  developed. 

The  committee  on  Negro  women  in  industry  submitted  a  report  on 
this  subject  of  such  special  importance  for  future  procedure  that  it 
is  reproduced  here  in  full : 

1.  We,  as  a  committee,  recommend  that  a  Negro  woman  be  placed  on  the  State 
committee  of  women  in  industry,  recently  named  by  the  Ohio  Branch,  Council  of 
National  Defense. 

2.  We,  as  a  committee,  recommend  that  the  United  States  Employment  Service 
place  Negro  placement  secretaries  in  any  employment  office  where  numbers  of  colored 
women  seek  employment,  to  be  determined  by  the  State  director. 

3.  We,  as  a  committee,  recommend  that  we  indorse  the  standard  which  the  women's 
committee,  Ohio  Branch,  Council  of  National  Defense,  have  drawn  up  through  the 
committee  on  women  in  industry. 

4.  We  recommend  that  this  committee  bring  to  the  attention  of  the  national  com- 
mittee on  housing  any  housing  conditions  as  they  affect  Negro  women. 

5.  We  recommend  that  a  pamphlet  be  drawn  up  stating  the  necessity  of  loyalty  to 
duty  and  efficiency  on  the  part  of  the  worker,  and  the  financial  loss  entailed  through 
the  neglect  of  such,  upon  the  part  of  the  employer  and  community,  be  given  each 
worker  thi'ough  the  employment  office. 

6.  We,  as  a  committee,  recommend  that  a  woman  be  placed  on  the  committee  of 
hygiene  and  sanitation,  if  the  committee  appointed  this  morning  is  a  standing  com- 
mittee. 

7.  We  recommend  that  no  worker  shall  be  permitted  to  leave  her  present  employ- 
ment without  giving  a  week  or  more  notice  before  l^eing  accepted  by  another  employer. 

8.  We  recommend  and  ui-ge  that  a  Negro  welfare  worker  be  placed  in  industries 
over  Negi'o  women  as  a  solution  to  the  employers'  problem  of  adjustment. 

9.  We  recommend  the  encom-agement  of  an  adequate  system  of  training  within 
plants  which  recognizes  the  difference  between  showing  and  teaching  for  all  new 
employees. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

Miss  Jennie  D.  Porter, 

Chairman,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Miss  Elsie  Mountain, 

Secretary,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Hon.  James  M.  Cox,  governor  of  Ohio,  was  present  at  the  confer- 
ence and  made  the  closing  address,  which  included  the  following 
remarks  : 

I  have  no  disposition  to  interfere  with  your  deliberations,  but  upon  the  statement 
of  Dr.  Haynes,  with  whom  I  have  had  a  brief  but  delightful  conference  with  reference 
to  the  earnestness  of  this  meeting  and  the  fact  that  it  seems  to  be  the  most  serious,  if 
not  the  most  successful,  meeting  that  has  l)een  held  in  any  of  the  States,  I  felt  that  we 
would  l3e  derelict  in  our  responsibility  to  the  duties  that  come  and  go  each  day,  as 
governor  of  this  State,  if  I  did  not  come  here  and  express  my  appreciation  of  your 
coming. 

First,  we  need  your  people  and  need  them  badly  in  the  war.  We,  likewise,  need 
yom-  people  and  need  them  badly  in  the  industrial  life  of  this  country. 

Last  winter  I  had  the  privilege  of  visiting  Tuskegee  Institute.  I  had  a  long  visit 
with  that  splendid  type  of  yom*  race.  Dr.  Moton.  The  opportimity  was  mine  of  making 
a  sui'vey  of  what  was  being  done  at  this  institute.  I  took  pains  to  make  considerable 
inquiry  with  reference  to  national  and  industrial  conditions  in  the  State  of  Alabama, 
and  I  am  prepared  to  say,  in  the  candor  of  my  own  judgment,  at  least,  that  you,  as 
representatives  of  the  race,  are  just  now  coming  into  your  own.  Even  in  the  Southern 
States,  when  the  great  flow  started  northward,  the  southern  people  found  they  could 
not  get  along  without  the  colored  people. 

The  war  gives  you  a  great  opportimity.  I  can  say  with  pride,  now,  and  reiterate 
it  all  tlirough  the  corridor  of  time,  that  not  a  single  member  of  your  race  is  following 
the  standard  of  the  Kaiser.  I  have  had  the  opportunity  of  reviewing  colored  troops, 
and  I  hope  you  will  not  feel  that  I  am  speaking  flippantly  when  I  recall  the  circum- 
stances of  re\iewing  the  troops  at  Camp  Sherman.  Capt.  Talbott,  with  Gen.  Glenn's 
staff,  came  over  to  the  reviewing  stand  and  said:  "I  have  just  left  the  colored  regi- 
ment, and  they  are  so  full  of  pep  that  if  they  do  not  dance  the  Cakewalk  when  they 


108  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

come  by,  I  will  be  surprised."  They  presented  the  best  line  of  the  day — it  was 
generally  conceded  to  1)e  the  best  line  of  the  day  by  the  general,  the  persons  in  the 
reviewing  stand,  and  the  thousands  of  white  people  who  were  a.ssemV)led  there.  I 
hope  that  when  the  war  is  over  we  can  then  join  together  members  of  our  race  and 
yours  in  helping  to  work  out  in  Ohio  what  they  have  in  Alabama. 

The  colored  man  is  here,  and  here  to  stay,  and  since  that  is  true  we  not  only  want 
to  improve  the  educational  opportunities  that  come  to  him  but  we  also  want  to  give 
attention  to  vocational  training.  *  *  *  1  want  you  to  cany  home  to  those  you 
represent  the  assuiance  that  whatever  help  this  State  can  render,  either  to  the  people 
in  your  State  or  to  the  soldiers  at  the  front,  needs  but  an  e\idence  of  yom-  desire. 

The  Department  of  Labor  takes  this  special  opportunity  to  thank 
every  agency  and  every  individual  who  helped  to  make  successful  the 
Oliio  conference  August  5,  1919. 

Negroes  workers'  advisory  comraittees. — Immediately  after  the  confer- 
ence, Supervisor  Hall,  with  the  assistance  of  public-spirited  citizens 
of  Ohio,  recommended  to  the  department  a  number  of  the  strongest 
persons  for  appointment  to  service  on  the  State  Negro  workers'  ad- 
visory committee,  and  to  local,  county,  and  city  committees  of  25 
important  centers  of  the  State  where  Negro  workers  in  considerable 
numbers  resided.  The  complete  personnel  of  the  State  committee 
follows : 

Edward  Berry,  Athens;  Leroy  W.  Bobbins  and  Chas.  C.  Cowgill, 
IMiddletowTi;  Chas.  L.  Johnson  and  Chas.  P.  Dunn,  Springfield;  Rob- 
ert K.  Hodges,  D.  R.  Williams,  Alexander  H.  Martin,  and  (Miss) 
Hazel  Mountain,  Cleveland;  Chas.  W.  Bryant,  Harry  B.  Alexander, 
J.  H.  Hendrick,-  and  (Mrs.)  E.  W.  Moore,  Columbus;  J.  E.  Ormes, 
Wilberforce;  R.  E.  Holmes,  Xenia;  F.  D.  Patterson,  Greenfield; 
Joseph  L.  Jones,  H.  S.  Dunbar,  Fred.  A.  Geier,  and  (Miss)  Anna  Laws, 
Cincmnati;  B.  M.  Ward,  B.  H.  Fisher,  and  (Mrs.)  Minnie  Scott, 
Toledo;  Rev.  W.  O.  Harper,  and  T.  E.  MiUiken,  Youngstown;  H.  T. 
Elliott,  Dayton;  Rev.  A.  M.  Thomas,  Zanesville;  (]Mrs.)  Stephen  Bates, 
ChiUicothe;  James  French,  Sandusky;  T.  E.  Greene,  Akron. 

Pereons  serving  on  these  committees  did  so  at  the  special  request 
of  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  and,  in  but  one  or  two  instances,  %\-here 
the  appointees  were  confronted  with  extreme  pressure  of  business, 
were  the  invitations  declined.  Throughout  the  work  the  patriotism 
and  spirit  of  service  of  the  citizenship  of  Ohio  made  possible  the  suc- 
cessful carrying  out  of  virtually  every  plan  which  the  department 
launched,  and  the  Ohio  committee,  like  similar  committees  •  in  10 
other  States,  assisted  in  the  handling  of  industrial  problems  with  a 
maximum  degree  of  satisfaction. 

Surveys  of  labor  conditions. — The  general  industrial  conditions  in 
Ohio  were  investigated  either  by  the  supervisor  directly  or  by  the 
committee  members,  who  reported  to  the  supervisor  on  a  form  of 
blank,  of  which  the  following  is  a  copy: 

NEGRO   WAGE    EARNERS   IN   OHIO. 

Information  for  supervisor  of  Negro  economics. 

To  members  of  county  and  city  committees  of  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee. 
Please  fill  out  blank  and  return. 

1.  Are  there  many  out  of  work  in  your  city  or  county?    . 

2.  Have  many  been  released  during  the  past  30  days?    . 

3.  If  so,  were  they  absorbed  by  other  occupations?    . 

4.  Have  any  new  avenues  of  employment  been  opened?    . 

5..  If  so,  state  the  kind  of  work.    . 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  109 

Remarks. 

(Under  "Remarks  "  please  furnish  the  supervisor  with  any  other  information  which 
you  think  should  be  brought  to  his  attention.) 

Information  furnished  by 

Address: 

Date:  

The  first  general  survey  developed  the  following  facts : 

The  Negro  workers  had  not  been  greatly  disturbed  because  of  the 
many  industrial  readjustments  and  temporary  suspensions  of  the 
manufacturing  enterprises  not  essential  to  winning  the  war,  during 
the  war  a^nd  preceding  the  signing  of  the  armistice. 

The  counties  of  Hamilton,  Lucas,  and  Montgomery,  whose  principal 
cities  are  Cincinnati,  Toledo,  and  Dayton,  respectively,  were  largely 
engaged  on  war  contracts.  In  Toledo  the  opportunities  for  employ- 
ment were  steadily  improving.  Local  industries  in  Cleveland,  Co- 
lumbus, Youngstown,  Akron,  Canton,  Lima,  Delaware,  Greenville, 
Steubenville,  ZanesviUe,  Chillicothe,  Sandusky,  Portsmouth,  Mari- 
etta, and  other  centers  were  employing  large  numbers  of  Ne^ro  work- 
ers. In  Butler  County,  the  American  Rolling  Mills  were  giving  em- 
ployment to  hundreds  of  workers.  In  Lima,  the  Swift  Packing  Co.  was 
giving  employment  to  Negro  men  and  women,  who  were  making  good. 
In  Youngstown,  Mahoning  County,  an  increasing  number  of  elevator 
girls  and  male  truck  drivers  were  given  employment. 

In  Dayton  a  large  firm  was  making  calls  for  considerable  numbers 
of  Negro  laborers.  This  company  was  able  to  guarantee  prospective 
workers  housing  facilities  of  the  better  type.  Columbus  reported  a 
garm-ent  manufacturer  who  was  unable  to  get  a  suflficient  number  of 
Negro  women  who  could  operate  power  machines.  Youngstown  re- 
ported insufficient  wages  ($9  and  $1 0  a  week)  for  girls.  Dayton  reported 
an  industry  using  from  1 5  to  30  colored  women,  sorting  rags  on  a  piece- 
work basis,  at  $15  per  week. 

Job  selling. — Among  the  special  conditions  found  in  Ohio  was  one 
which  related  to  job  selling  in  industrial  establishments;  and  there  is 
incorporated  herein  a  full  report  of  the  Ohio  supervisor  respecting 
this  condition,  evidences  of  which  were  very  apparent.  Tliis  report 
was  approved  by  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  and  sent  to  ad- 
visory committeemen  in  all  parts  of  the  State. 

JOB    SELLING    IN    INDUSTRIAL    ESTABLISHMENTS   TO    NEGROES. 

To  prevent  job  selling;  by  foremen,  assistant  foremen,  "straw  bosses"  and  "go- 
betweens"  a  very  comprehensive  bill  was  enacted  by  the  last  General  Assembly 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio,  the  penalty  being 
as  follows: 

"Section  2.  Whoever  violates  any  provision  of  this  act  shall  be  fined  for  the  first 
offense  not  less  than  one  hundred  dollars  nor  more  than  five  hundred  dollars  and  the 
costs  of  prosecution;  and  for  the  second  or  any  subsequent  offense  not  less  than  two 
hundred  dollars  nor  more  than  one  thousand  dollars  and  the  costs  of  prosecution." 
_  "Section  6.  The  Industrial  (.'ommission  of  Ohio  shall  have  full  power,  jurisdic- 
tion, and  authority  to  administer  the  provisions  of  tliis  act." 

Before  the  migration  of  Nesri-oes  from  the  South  had  reached  a  considerable  vol- 
ume, the  foreign-born  wage  earners  were  the  ones  who  were  the  victims  of  this  per- 
nicious system  and  the  Department  of  Investigation  and  Statistics  secured  definite 
information  that  the  collection  of  fees  for  jobs,  or  assessments  of  various  lands  by 
foremen  was  a  well-established  custom  in  many  of  the  industrial  establishments 
through  the  State.  It  was  found  at  the  time  the  investigation  was  made  that  the 
price  paid  to  foremen  was  generally  $15,  $20,  or  $25  for  a  job  paying  approximately  25 
cents  per  hour,  and  that  the  custom  appeared  to  have  become  so  well  established  that 


110  THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

no  demand  for  payment  needed  to  be  made  as  the  applicant  understood  that  he  must 
make  a  payment  of  money  before  he  got  the  work. 

Definite  information  was  secured  by  the  department  to  the  effect  that  the  shrewd 
foreman  seldom  received  the  money  directly  from  the  applicant,  but  usually  had  a 
number  of  men  who  acted  as  ''go-betweens"  and  who  were  generally  "straw  bosses" 
or  workmen. 

This  system  of  petty  gi-aft  became  so  pronounced  and  the  demands  of  the  grafters 
became  so  insistent  that  the  investigators  experienced  no  great  dilficulty  in  securing 
the  e^idence  upon  wMch  a  number  of  indictments  were  made  under  the  old  law 
relating  to  private  employment  agencies  wliich  was  not  broad  enough  in  scope,  how- 
ever, to  fit  the  entire  situation. 

The  new  law  includes  the  acceptance  of  fees,  gifts  or  gratuities,  qr  promises  to  pay 
a  fee  or  to  make  a  gift  under  the  agreement  or  with  the  understanding  that  the  grafter 
will  undertake  to  secure  or  assist  in  securing  work  for  the  applicant,  or  with  the  under- 
standing that  he  vriW  advance  or  undertake  to  secure  or  assist  in  securing  an  advance 
in  pay  or  prevent  or  undertake  to  prevent  or  assist  in  preventing  the  discharge  or 
reduction  in  pay  or  position  of  the  worker  in  the  employ  of  the  company.  The  law 
which  was  enacted  by  the  eighty-second  general  assembly  covers  all  of  these  points 
and  carries  with  it  the  penalty  indicated  above. 

There  are  indication  that  tliere  has  been  a  re^dv'■al  of  the  practice  of  job  selling,  but 
that  instead  of  working  on  the  foreigners,  the  grafters  have  turned  their  attention  to 
the  helpless,  ignorant,  and  destitute  Negroes  who  are  coming  from  the  South  to  seek 
opportunities  to  better  their  condition,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  system  of  job 
selling  in  industrial  establishments  in  Ohio  will  again  be  investigated  as  the  practice 
is  not  only  unlawful  and  highly  dishonorable  but  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  the  morale 
of  the  workers  and  thereby  seriously  affect  production.  All  such  cases  should  be 
reported. 

Chaules  E.  Hall, 
Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics. 

Approved. 

,  (Signed)  George  E.  Haynes. 

Director  of  Negro  Economics. 

Living  conditions  of  Negro  workers. — It  was  the  experience  of  the 
department  that  inifavorable  living  conditions,  more  than  anything 
else,  made  difficult  the  advancement  of  the  Negro  worker  in  effi- 
ciency and  increased  contentment.  At  times  the  housing  conditions 
were  due  to  lack  of  employment;  at  times  the  conditions  were  due  to 
lack  of  pride  on  the  part  of  the  worker;  and  at  times  the  boarding- 
house  keeper  of  the  low  ty^e  set  up  conditions  which  necessity  forced 
the  working  men  to  accept. 

As  to  the  latter  class,  in  one  instance  Supervisor  Hall  reported  as 
fellows: 

October  11,  1918. 
Dr.  George  E.  Haynes, 

Director  of  Negro  Economics,  Department  of  Labor,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Dear  Sir:  On  the  evening  of  October  9,  1918,  I  visited  the  boarding  and  lodging 
house  conducted-  by  — ,  a  colored  man,  for  the ■  Co.,  — ,  Ohio. 

This  very  dilapidated  two-story  frame  building  r-i  located  at Street,  and 

is  known  as .     It  is  the  most  filthy  boarding  and  lodging  house  that  has 

come  under  my  observation.  A  foul-smelling  closet  adjoins  the  unclean  dining 
room.  I  noticed  broken  windows  upstairs  in  the  sleeping  quarters,  and  in  the 
south  wing  even  the  skylights  were  without  glass  or  other  protection  from  the 
elements. 

There  is  no  shower  or  bathroom  for  the  42  men  who  occupy  this  house,  and  it  has 
been  found  necessary  to  borrow  a  washtub  from  the  neighbors  to  accommodate  the 
men  who  wdsh  to  take  a  bath.  The  place  is  heated  by  small  stoves  and  natural  gas 
heaters  and  the  building  is  lighted  by  electricity.  The  kitchen  was  fairlj^  clean  but 
the  range  had  no  hot-water  boiler,  wfdch  greatly  inconveniences  the  cooks  and  other 
kitchen  help  as  well  as  the  boarders. 

A  number  of  the  dirty  sunken  floors  need  jacking  up  and  the  rooms  would  not  be 
less  attractive  if  they  were  painted  or  wlutewashed.  Although  there  are  a  few  new 
bed  mattresses,  I  found  most  of  them  alarmingly  fUthy  with  bed  coverings  in  the  same 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  Ill 

condition.  Although  there  are  plenty  of  rooms  in  the  house,  many  of  them  are  unfur- 
nished. Upon  in(iuiry  I  was  informed  that  the  men  coming  off  the  night  shift  are 
obliged  to  occupy  the  rooms  just  vacated  by  the  men  going  on  the  day  shift.  In 
some  instances  four  of  five  men  sleep  in  a  room  about  10  by  1 2  at  the  same  time.  Some 
of  the  bed  springs  are  worn  out,  necessitating  the  sleeper  to  lie  in  most  uncomfortable 
positions,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  he  has  been  working  hard  and  that  the  efficiency 
of  his  work  depends  largely  upon  comfortable  repose.  There  is  no  assembly  room, 
music  (except  nickel-in-the-slot  piano),  pool,  billiards,  or  books. 

For  these  most  inferior  accommodations  the  men  are  charged  $7.25  per  week  for 

room  and  board  as  compared  with  $4.55  per  week  charged  by  the  Co., 

located  in  the  same  city  and  within  a  few  blocks.    The  - — - —  Co.  maintains  a  large 

boarding  and  lodging  house,  known  as  "The , "  which  is  now  being  papered, 

painted,  and  generally  overhauled. 

In  my  opinion,  the  — —  is  extremly  insanitary  and  a  disease  breeder,  a  condition 
which  could  not  have  escaped  the  attention  of  the  local  officials  of  the  company,  one 
of  whom  visits  the  house  daily  for  the  purpose  of  checking  up. 

These  conditions  are  doubtless  the  causes  of  the  large  turnover  and  inefficiency  of 
the  colored  workers  of  this  company. 
Respectfully, 

Charles  E.  Hall, 
Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics,  Ohio. 

This  report  was  approved  Lv  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  fo^ 
submission  to  the  general  manager  of  the — -  Company.  Sub- 
sequent action  by  the  company  m  the  renovation  of  this  place  and 
change  of  these  conditions  followed  the  receipt  of  this  report  by  him. 

Critical  housing  conditions  in  Cleveland,  together  with  other 
economic  problems,  gave  to  that  city  a  special  need  which  the  depart- 
ment planned  to  give  attention  to  through  a  local  representative 
member  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee.  This  plan,  how- 
ever, was  delayed  and  finally  given  up  because  of  necessary  changes 
in  the  policy  of  the  department. 

Acute  housing  conditions  were  found  also  at  Akron,  Cleveland, 
Dayton,  Lima,  Portsmouth,  Toledo,  and  Youngstown;  and,  subse- 
quently, the  Department  of  Labor,  through  the  United  States  Housing 
Corporation,  had  surveys  made  in  several  of  these  cities,  but  the  sud- 
den termination  of  the  war,  accompanied  by  a  readjustment  of  the 
industries  to  a  peace-time  basis,  threw  a  great  many  persons  out  of 
work  and  the  housing  condition  was  somewhat  relieved  through  the 
general  exodus  of  Negro  and  white  wage  earners  to  other  localities 
within  and  without  the  State  where  there  was  a  shortage  of  labor  and 
where  adequate  housing  facilities  obtained.  One  permanent  result 
in  stimulating  building  and  loan  associations  is  fully  described  below. 

The  faiim'e  of  congressional  appropriations  for  the  furtherance  of 
the  Negro  economics  work  mif avorably  affected  the  industrial  progress 
of  this  class  of  wage  earners  who  had  watched  with  increasing  interest 
the  development  of  this  new  agency  which  was  established  to  better 
their  industrial  welfare  and  to  act  as  a  clearing  house  for  industrial 
opportunities.  Men  were  no  longer  obliged  to  live  in  idleness,  because 
they  were  able  at  all  times  to  learn  thi'ough  the  supervisor  where 
work  could  be  obtained,  the  rate  of  wages,  the  hom's  oi  labor,  and  the 
attitude  of  the  residents  of  any  community  toward  Negro  labor. 
Negro  professional  men,  skilled  and  unskilled  workers,  and  others, 
freel}"  communicated  with  the  Dnector  of  Negro  Economics  and  with 
the  State  supervisor  for  the  pm'pose  of  secm'ing  a  location  or  an 
opportunity  in  a  community  \\4iere  conditions,  were  favorable  to  their 
prosperity,  and  the  failure  of  appropriations  to  provide  for  the 
continuance  of  this  field  work  was  keenly  felt. 


112  THE   NEGEO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

Discrimination  in  occupations  on  account  of  color  was  one  of  the 
conditions  which,  in  some  instances,  confronted  the  Ne^ro  worker. 
The  Ohio  Conference  on  Negro  Labor  made  reconmaendations  on  this 
point.  Wliether  such  discriminations  were  approved  by  private  or 
public  employers  made  a  difference  in  the  action  which  the  depart- 
ment could  take.  The  private  employer  might  hire  whomsoever  he 
chose.  Aside  from  an  appeal  for  justice  and  fair  play  on  his  part, 
the  department  was  unable  to  take  any  specific  action  in  such  cases. 
Where  such  discriminations,  however,  were  alleged  to  exist  within 
the  ranks  of  employers  who  because  of  war  contracts  or  other  rela- 
tions came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  Government,  investi- 
gations were  made  and  definite  steps  taken  to  remove  such  discrimi- 
nations. 

Complaints. — Complaints,  other  than  those  noted  above,  were 
generally  of  thi'ee  types: 

1.  Discrimination  in  the  matter  of  opportunities  for  the  Negro 

worker. 

2.  Unfair  treatment  of  the  Negro  worker  by  employers. 

3.  Inefficiency  of  the  Negro  workers. 

On  the  whole,  there  was  a  minimum  amount  of  complaint  in  Ohio 
either  by  employer  or  employee.  The  stamp  of  efficiency  was  often 
placed  upon  the  Negro  worker,  and  the  Negro  worker  often  recog- 
nized the  effort  on  the  part  of  employers  assuring  to  him  equal  pay, 
equal  houi*s,  recreation  facilities,  pleasant  relations  with  white 
workers,  and  decent  living  conditions. 

Results. — Under  the  supervision  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service,  the  State  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  made  direct  reports 
of  placement  of  Negi-o  workers  to  the  Federal  director.  He  assisted 
the  emplo}Tnent  offices  throughout  the  State  with  their  problems  of 

g lacing  Negro  workers.  Reports  of  the  United  States  EmplojTnent 
ervice  give  him  the  recognition  for  this  help.  Placements  were 
many  and  varied.  Services  were  frequently  rendered  to  firms  which 
had  not  formerly  employed  Negro  workers.  Following  the  signing 
of  the  armistice  and  the  resulting  nonemployment  situation  the  efforts 
for  the  returning  Negro  soldiers  and  sailors  were  carried  along  side  by 
side  with  the  efforts  of  the  Federal  and  State  machinery  for  the 
employment  of  all  persons. 

An  outstanding  feature  of  the  Ohio  work  was  the  project  of  fur- 
thermg  the  organization  of  buildhig  and  loan  associations  among 
Negroes  of  the  State  as  one  concrete  means  of  remedying  the  housing 
situation.  In  a  letter  dated  May  8,  1919,  which  was  given  State- 
wide publicity,  Supervisor  Hall  made  the  following  points : 

1.  Industrial  opportunities  m  Ohio  are  ever  opening. 

2.  The  housing  facilities  offered  to  Negro  workers  are  madequate. 

3.  Negro  people  themselves  should  make  some  of  the  financial 

arrangements  for  meetmg  the  housing  situation. 

4.  Overcrowded  and  msanitary  housmg  conditions  destroy  the 

efficiency  of  the  worker. 

5.  The  home  o^mer  is  ever  a  permanent  workmg  factor,  con- 

tributmg  to  the  growth  of  the  State  and  to  its  civic  and 

commercial  progress. 
Thereafter  Supervisor  Hall  compiled,  from  the  Laws  of  Ohio,  a 
skeleton  outluie  of  the  statutes  regulatmg  the  organizing  and  con- 
ducting of  buildmg  and  loan  associations.     He  also  formed  a  plan  i 


THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  113 

and  model  constitution  for  such  associations  among  colored  people 
of  the  several  localities.  This  outlme  of  laws  and  plans  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  members  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  commit- 
tees and  of  special  groups  in  the  cities  and  counties  throughout  the 
State  having  a  considerable  Negro  population.  This  was  supplemented 
by  talks  made  by  the  supervisor  to  interested  groups  in  various 
places.  Wilberforce  University  gave  special  courses  of  lectures  on 
building  and  loan  matters  in  three  centers  of  the  State.  So  numerous 
became  the  requests  for  additional  information  that  the  supervisor 
f omid  it  necessary  to  prepare  a  model  form  of  constitution  and  by-laws 
for  distribution.  In  rapid  succession  building  and  loan  associations 
were  organized  in  several  Ohio  cities  where  they  are  greatly  needed. 
Requests  for  the  "Ohio  plan"  were  also  made  by  persons  living  in 
Colorado,  District  of  Columbia,  Georgia,  Maryland,  Michigan,  and 
New  York,  and  several  associations  in  these  States  have  smce  been 
organized.  All  are  reported  to  be  doing  good  business  financially 
and  are  helping  to  alleviate  the  housing  conditions.  Companies  in 
other  places  are  proposed  and  will  doubtless  be  launched. 

In  carrying  out  the  purpose  with  which  it  was  charged  by  Congress, 
the  Department  of  Labor  has  steadfastly  been  a  neutral  adminis- 
trator regarding  union  and  nonunion  workers,  and  has  endeavored 
to  promote  alike  the  interests  of  aU  workers,  white  and  colored,  male 
and  female,  union  and  nonunion.  With  this  in  view,  the  department 
has  sought  to  keep  fuUy  informed  of  the  attitude  of  labor  organiza- 
tions toward  Negroes  in  territories  where  the  question  is  a  vital  one 
for  amicable  relations  of  the  two  races  in  industry. 

Consequently,  statement  of  the  change  in  the  attitude  of  organized 
labor  in  Ohio  during  this  period  is  of  special  note.  The  copy  of  a 
letter  of  Mr.  Thomas  J.  Donnelly,  secretary-treasurer,  Ohio  Federa- 
tion of  Labor,  outlining  the  attitude  of  that  organization  in  the 
matter  of  unionizing  Negro  wage  earners  covers  this  important  point: 

Columbus,  Ohio,  January  22,  1919. 
Mr.  Chas.  E.  Hall, 

Supervisor  of  Negro  Economics, 

Department  of  Labor,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Dear  Mr.  Hall:  Supplementing  our  conversation  recently  upon  the  subject  of 
Negro  labor  and  the  unionizing  of  colored  men  in  this  section  of  the  country,  I  am 
writing  you  that  at  this  time  best  results  would  be  obtained,  in  my  opinion,  if  efforts 
should  be  made  to  bring  into  the  union  those  colored  men  who  were  born  and  edu- 
cated in  the  North,  where  through  contact  and  association  with  the  whites  they  have 
formed  the  same  \iewpoint  on  industrial  affairs,  see  the  same  necessity  for  a  sustained 
effort,  have  the  same  "pep,"  and  the  same  determination  to  protect  their  rights  as 
wage  earners  and  as  citizens.  These  men  can  be  taken  in  by  the  organizations  rep- 
resenting both  the  skilled  and  unskilled  branches  of  the  labor  unions,  and  I  believe 
that  no  great  objection  would  be  found,  especially  if  in  communities  where  there  are 
large  numbers  of  both  white  and  colored,  distinct  locals  were  organized;  but  where 
there  are  only  a  few  whites  or  a  few  colored  men  following  the  same  trade  it  would  be 
adAisable  for  them  to  belong  to  the  same  local.  A  possible  objection  to  a  mixed  local 
in  communities  where  there  are  large  numbers  of  both  races  employed  in  the  same 
line  of  work  is  that  both  elements  might  vote  along  the  color  line  upon  questions  of 
organization  and  policies.  This  of  course  would  have  a  tendency  to  destroy  the 
solidarity  of  the  organization  and  to  discount  its  work.  I  believe  that  once  these 
colored  workers  were  fairly  well  organized  they  would  be  a  valued  aid  in  organizing 
the  illiterate  ones  who  have  migrated  from  the  South  and  give  them  a  clearer  view  of 
northern  ideals  and  the  responsibilities  accompanying  citizenship. 

While  it  has  been  my  experience  that  colored  men  as  a  rule  make  good  union  men, 
I  do  not  think  that  the  colored  agricultural  illiterates  from  the  South  are  adaptable 
to  skilled  industry  and  membership  in  unions  of  the  skilled  white  workers. 

1989°— 21 8 


114  THE   NEGEO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

Negroes  reared  in  Ohio,  ha^dng  the  advantage  of  the  public  schools  in  the  State, 
should  be  adaptable  to  skilled  industry  and  no  doubt  could  secure  membership  in  the 
unions  of  the  skilled  white  workers  or  have  separate  organizations  chartered  by  the 
international  trades-unions.  Places  could  possibly  be  found  for  a  number  of  southern 
colored  agricultural  illiterates  at  common  labor  and  in  semiskilled  trades.  They 
would  then  be  eligible  to  membership  in  the  unions  of  the  workers  in  these  lines  of 
industiy. 

Improved  machinery  has  gi-eatly  lessened  the  demand  for  muscle,  biit  at  the  same 
time  has  increased  the  demand  for  men  who  are  trained  to  use  their  heads  as  well  aa 
their  hands. 

A  great  number  of  accidents  in  the  Ohio  factories  and  mills  during  the  past  few 
years  has  largely  been  due  to  the  employment  of  illiterate  foreigners  from  southern 
iEurope,  who  formerly  followed  agricultural  pursuits,  and  the  employment  of  large 
numbers  of  Negroes  of  the  same  class  from  the  South  would  result,  no  doubt,  in  a  like 
number  of  accidents.  Until  they  become  factory  broken,  more  punctual  and  depend- 
able in  attendance,  more  intelligent,  and  more  accustomed  to  the  northern  method 
of  li^dng  they  will  not  really  constitute  an  asset  of  large  value  to  skilled  industr5\ 
Yours,  very  truly, 

Thos.  J.  Donnelly, 
Secretary- Treasurer,  Ohio  State  Federation  of  Labor. 

In  closing  the  work  in  Oliio,  after  the  failure  of  a])propriations, 
Supervisor  Hall  gave  the  following  statement  of  concrete  results  of 
his  efforts: 

1.  The  growth  and  stimulation  of  the  opinion  among  colored  workers  that  the  Gov- 
ernment has  recognized  them  induslrially,  that  they  now  have  a  medium  through 
which  to  voice  their  complaints,  and  that  because  of  the  moral  effect  of  such  recog- 
nition they  will  be  less  subject  to  exploitation. 

2.  A  more  helpful  attitude  on  the  part  of  employers  and  a  less  hostile  one  on  the 
part  of  white  wage  earners  brought  about  through  contact  with  colored  members  of  j 
committees. 

3.  The  gradual  elimination  of  racial  objection  at  "the  gate"  or  point  of  hiring, 
through  the  cultivation  of  superintendents,  managers,  and  directors  of  employment. 

4.  The  announcement  of  the  official  attitude  of  the  Ohio  State  Federation  of  Labor 
concerning  skilled  and  unskilled  Negro  labor. 

5.  The  increase  in  efncienc>'  and  decrease  in  labor  turnoA^er  brought  about  through 
the  knowledge  or  belief  that  they  would  be  given  a  "'square  deal"  industrially. 

6.  The  awakening  of  Negi'oes,  through  the  circulation  of  fi'equent  State-wide  re- 
ports, to  the  industrial  opportunities  open  to  them. 

7.  The  location,  through  questionnaires  sent  to  county  committees,  of  points  where 
a  surplus  or  shortage  of  Negro  labor  obtained,  and  the  adjustment  of  these  conditions, 
when  possible,  through  the  Clearance  Dixdsion  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service. 

8.  The  placing  of  movable  wooden  racks  on  cold  cement  floors  of  shower  baths  in 
several  industrial  plants  in  order  to  encourage  a  more  frequent  use  of  the  bath. 

9.  The  closing  of  several  dilapidated,  filthy,  disease-breeding  Negro  boarding  and 
lodging  houses  maintained  by  large  manufacturing  companies.  The  personal  in- 
spection of  other  lodging  houses,  camps,  etc. 

10.  The  creation  of  a  better  understanding  of  the  functions  of  the  Department  of 
Labor,  and  a  greater  appreciation  of  governmental  agencies  brought  about  through 
the  efforts  of  the  State  and  county  Negro  worker's  advisory  committees. 

11.  The  development  of  cooperative  groups  through  the  encouragement  and  in- 
formation given  to  committees  in  communities  where  the  organization  of  a  building 
and  loan  association  would  be  both  practicable  and  advisable. 

12.  The  appointment  of  several  colored  "labor  scouts''  whose    efficient  work  in 
congested  industrial  centers  was  of  great  value  to  the  service  and  to  the  Negro  wage  > 
earners. 

The  opinions  and  attitude  of  white  and  colored  citizens  of  Ohio  ; 
on  the  work  of  Negro  economics  in  that  State  show  some-  j 
thing  of  its  effect.  A  few  excerpts  from  the  communications  to  the  | 
department  are  given  below:  ii 

Yom-  circular  with  reference  to  Negro  economics  in  Ohio  under  date  of  December  : 
14th  was  received  by  us  and  read  with  Lively  interest.  Any  further  communication  | 
or  publication  you  may  have  on  this  subject  I  am  sure  will  be  appreciated.  We  are  \ 
interested  in  this  problem  as  you  are,  and  desire  to  help  in  its  solution  so  far  as  it  is  ! 
possible  for  us  to  do  so.  i 


THE   NEGRO  AT  WOEK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAE.  115 

I  am  glad  to  know  that  your  work  is  progressiiii;;  satisfactorily.  1  sincerely  hope 
that  we  will  continue  to  hold  our  own  industrially,  and  that  the  Government  will 
continue  to  cooperate  with  us  and  allow  us  representation  in  the  Department  of 
Labor. 


I  shall  be  glad  to  cooperate  with  j'ou  to  the  extent  of  my  ability  in  trying  to  bring 
about  the  conditions  we  both  desire  during  readjustment. 


I  received  your  circular,  and  most  heartily  welcome  its  coming.  Words  are  in- 
adequate to  express  my  appreciation.  Please  let  the  good  thing  continue  to  come 
this  way. 

The  work  you  are  in  calls  for  a  first-class  race  man's  efforts,  and  I  believe  that  you 
should  be  retained  with  the  Government  in  the  same  capacity.  I  am  pleased  to 
have  met  you,  to  have  learned  of  your  work,  and  to  have  been  brought  in  touch  with 
it,  and  I  believe  you  mil  be  successful. 


I  am  glad  you  have  completed  your  organization,  and  I  assure  you  you  have  my 
full  support. 

In  returning  your  information  blank,  I  would  state  that  the  Uruted  States  Employ- 
ment Ser"\dce  is  filling  a  long-felt  need  among  our  people,  and  that  your  methods 
meet  my  approval  and  will  receive  my  earnest  support.  Let  me  hear  from  you  at 
any  time. 


Congratulations  on  your  report.  Keep  it  up.  Just  simply  the  information  is  a 
tremendous  factor  in  cementing  the  race,  and  that  means  ultimate  solidarity  and 
success. 


Your  very  concise  and  yet  informative  letter  relative  to  labor  and  labor  conditions 
among  the  Negroes  came  to  hand.  It  is  a  splendid  document.  You  are  to  be  con- 
grautlated  upon  its  production,  for  in  it  you  have  at  your  finger  tips  the  best  and  most 
information  it  has  been  my  good  fortune  to  receive  relative  to  the  Negro  in  this  im- 
portant field  of  endeavor  in  Ohio.     I  wish  you  continued  success  in  all  yoiu-  efforts. 


I  thank  you  for  the  circular  letter  concerning  the  readjustment  of  Negro  labor. 
Keep  me  posted,  and  if  T  can  serve  you,  call  on  me. 


We  have  also  got  good  service  from  the  United  States  Employment  Service,  and 
Mr.  Hall,  State  supervisor,  is  doing  a  great  work. 


I  wish  to  congratulate  you  upon  the  excellent  work  you  are  doing  in  Ohio  for  the 
industrial  advancement  of  our  people.  We  all  appreciate  the  opportunity  to  coop- 
erate \\ith  you  and  the  Department  of  Labor. 

Your  letter  with  the  inclosed  statement  marked'  "Personal,  not  for  publication" 
has  been  received.  We  are  grateful  to  }ou  for  your  kindness  in  sending  this  infor- 
mation . 


I  wish  to  advise  you  that  as  a  result  of  your  efforts  here  in  Cincinnati  to  organize  a 
building  and  loan  association  managed  by  colored  men,  we  have  the  Industrial  Sav- 
ings &  Loan  Co.,  incorporated  for  §300,000,  which  commenced  doing  business  January 
3L  We  will  be  prepared  to  make  our  first  loan  Avithin  the  next  week  or  10  days  and 
our  prospects  are  very  bright  for  a  large  and  groAving  company. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Pre  war  Conditions.— Negro  labor  can  not  be  said  to  have  enjoyed 
any  abnormal  inclusion  in  Pennsylvania  industries.  The  historical 
and  political  development  of  Pennsylvania  has  not  been  such  as  to 
attract  a  large  Negro  population.  Pennsylvania  labor  was  probably 
formed,  largely,  by  foreigners  comprised  of  the  so-called  "Hunkie 
laborer  in  the  unsldlled  and  semiskilled  occupations.  The  skilled 
class  was  probably  made  up  of  American  labor  which  developed  in 
Pennsylvania  along  with  the  development  of  industry  and  which 
was  supplemented,  under  the  law  of  demand  and  supply,  by  skilled 
artisans  and  mechanics  who  came  into  Pennsylvania  from  other 
centers.  Even  the  Negro  mining  class  had  been  employed,  previous 
to  the  war,  in  fairly  large  proportions  in  Pennsylvania  mining  dis- 
tricts of  the  southwestern  section.  In  the  JPittsburgh  district, 
more  than  in  any  other  section,  the  Negro  worker,  before  the  war, 
probably  enjoyed  a  greater  inclusion  into  all  branches  of  labor  than 
he  did  at  any  other  point  in  the  State. 

The  Pittsburgh  Negro  had  long  since  become  a  very  desirable 
citizen,  a  competent  worker,  and  a  thrifty  individual.  In  the  steel 
mills  at  Pittsburgh,  "rollers"  and  other  types  of  workers  were  em- 
ployed at  salaries  sometimes  as  large  as  S250  per  month.  These 
persons  maintained  good  homes  and  contributed  to  a  high  type  of 
civic  life  in  Pittsburgh.  Now  and  then  a  technical  worker  from 
some  of  the  best  American  universities  was  in  a  supervisory  position 
in  a  steel  mill. 

Industrial  advances  during  the  war. — With  the  stress  of  war  the 
gi'eat  industries  of  Pennsylvania,  thi'ough  sheer  necessity,  became 
objective  centers  of  a  tremendously  large  mass  of  workers.  The 
never-failing  law  of  demand  and  supply  was  exercising  great  influ- 
ence in  drawing  laborers.  To  the  Negro  worker,  whether  he  came 
from  locations  within  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  or  other  Northern 
States,  or  from  the  South,  which  was  pouring  into  northern  indus- 
tries its  thousands  of  Negro  migrants,  the  influence  of  the  law  of 
demand  and  supply  was  very  effective.  Consequently  Negro  labor 
of  every  type  was  drawn  into  employment  in  Pennsylvania,  from 
Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh. 

When  the  Division  of  Negro  Economics  was  established,  the  plans 
of  the  Secretary  of  Labor  called  for  the  development  of  this  work  of 
the  Negro,  choosing  first  the  points  of  the  greatest  needs  in  different 
sections  of  the  country.  For  this  reason  the  work  of  the  division 
was  somewhat  delayed  in  its  beginnmg  in  Pennsylvania. 

The  machinery  of  the  United  States  Emplo}Tnent  Service  had  been 
well  established  in  Pennsylvania  and  as  soon  as  plans  for  the  Negro 
work  were  perfected  and  a  worker  available,  it  was  decided  to  es- 
tablish a  cooperating  office,  first,  at  Erie,  Pa.  A  competent  Negro 
official,  Harry  E.  Arnold,  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service, 
was  accordingly  detailed  to  that  city. 
116 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  117 

At  that  time  Erie  presented  some  very  critical  problems  affecting 
the  relations  of  white  and  Negro  workers.  At  the  outset  of  the  war 
there  was  said  to  be  about  300  Negroes  residing  in  Erie.  But  on 
November  18,  1918,  this  population  had  increased  to  2,000  persons, 
the  majority  of  them  newcomers,  practically  all  of  whom  had  come 
from  the  South.  Housing  conditions  most  seriously  affected  the 
Negroes  in  Erie.  When  the  Negro  economics  activities  first  looked 
in  upon  the  situation,  200  Negro  laborers  were  living  in  crowded  bunk 
houses  and  hastily  erected  camps.  The  larger  portion  of  Negro  fe- 
male workers  were  employed  in  domestic  and  personal  service.  Con- 
siderable complaint  on  the  part  of  employees  was  directed  against 
"irregularity  of  service."  Because  of  this  and  the  housing  condi- 
tions, there  was  a  large  turnover  of  labor  in  Erie,  male  and  female. 

Organization  of  committees. — The  Negro  special  agent,  Harry  E. 
Arnold,  following  the  above-described  plan  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor, 
thi'ough  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics,  established  a  strong  com- 
mittee of  colored  and  cooperating  white  members  in  Erie.  The  pur- 
poses and  functions  of  such  a  committee  have  been  previously  ex- 
plained. A  labor  survey  of  Erie  followed  and  thereafter,  as  soon  as 
the  local  situation  had  been  well  got  in  hand,  similar  plans  were  out- 
hned  for  Meadville,  Sharon,  Pittsburgh,  Washington,  Connellsville, 
Harrisburg,  New  Castle,  Beaver  Falls,  Sewickley,  Wilkinsburg, 
Braddock,  Homestead,  Monongahela,  Uniontown,  Johnstown,  Steel- 
ton,  Carlisle,  Chambersburg,  York,  Gettysburg,  Williamsport,  Lan- 
caster, Coatesville,  Scranton,  and  other  industrial  centers. 

The  signing  of  the  armistice,  of  course,  made  unnecessary  a  greater 
development  of  plans  for  Negro  labor  in  Pennsylvania,  but  during 
December,  1918,  and  January,  February,  and  March,  1919,  the 
Negro  special  agent  had  carried  forward  such  plans  in  order  to  meet 
the  readjustments  which  would  naturally  be  found  in  reconstruction 
times.  The  beginning  of  April,  1919,  found  a  surplus  of  100  unem- 
ployed Negroes  in  Erie.  The  special  agent  within  a  few  weeks  had 
assisted  in  reducing  this  surplus  to  48.  In  this  effort  it  was  neces- 
sary for  liim  to  seek  opportunities  and  assistance  from  a  number  of 
plants  in  the  placement  of  Negro  workers.  Thirty-one  representative 
plants,  principally  in  the  iron  and  steel  industries,  gave  ready  atten- 
tion to  the  employment  of  Neo;ro  labor,  and  the  following  facts  are 
significant  in  connection  with  its  greater  inclusion  in  Pennsylvania 
industries:  Four  hundred  colored  men,  of  which  50  per  cent  were 
skilled  workers,  were  employed  in  one  of  the  railroad  shops.  Six  of 
these  emplo5'ees  were  rated  as  "first-class  mechanics"  and  were 
ranked  amon^  the  most  efficient  in  the  shops.  The  officials  of  a  metal 
company  and  of  a  boiler  company,  both  of  which  employed  foundry 
men  and  skilled  workers,  stated  that  their  "Negro  employees  are  as 
efficient  as  the  whites." 

When  it  became  necessary  for  these  plants  to  reduce  their  forces 
on  account  of  the  cancellation  of  contracts,  preference  was  given,  in 
the  matter  of  continuation,  to  the  permanent  residents  of  tfie  local- 
ities wherein  these  industries  had  their  plants.  The  result  was  that 
the  permanent  employees  are  old  residents  of  that  city.  This,  of 
course,  assists  in  stimulating  the  continuance  of  home  ownership 
and  solidarity  of  civic  life.  The  special  agent  reported  200  Negroes 
in  the  employ  of  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.  on  May  7,  1918.  Prior  to  the 
signing  of  the  armistice  the  number  was  probably  from  600  to  800. 


118  THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

In  this  instance,  inadequate  housing  again  retarded  the  inclusion  of 
skilled  workers.  Bunk  houses  and  other  unsatisfactory  conditions 
wliich  the  better  type  of  laborer  would  be  discontented  with  estopped 
supply  of  the  skilled  Negro  worker.  The  American  Steel  &  Wire  Co. 
reported  a  regular  force  of  75  Negro  workers,  practically  all  of  whom 
were  skilled  employees.  The  Savage  Arms  Corporation  reported  60 
colored  workers  on  Government  contracts.  Two  machinists  were 
included  in  this  number. 

The  above  facts  show  to  a  small  degree  some  of  the  practical  work 
accomplished  by  this  division  within  a  very  short  period  of  time. 
The  adjustments  which  followed  the  appointment  of  a  departmental 
representative  in  Pennsylvania  indicate  the  neM  of  the  continuation 
of  such  a  special  service  in  Pennsylvania  districts,  in  which  the  Negro 
worker  is  strivmg  for  a  permanent  place  in  the  industrial  life.  It 
may  well  be  said  that  the  great  opportunities  in  this  great  State  will 
at  least,  in  some  small  degree,  be  more  readih^  available  to  the  com- 
petent Negro  worker  of  the  future. 

Cooperation. — The  Division  of  Negro  Economics  is  particularly 
grateful  to  the  private  individuals  and  organizations  in  Pennsylvania, 
as  well  as  public  officials,  Federal,  State,  and  city,  who  cooperated 
wholeheartedly  in  the  work.  Of  particular  mention  are  the  Pitts- 
burgh Urban  League,  the  Interstate  Industrial  Arts  Association,  and 
the  Armstrong  Association  of  Philadelphia.  These  organizations, 
with  their  wealth  of  material  knowledge  regarding  Negro  life,  were 
quick  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  department  in  this  special 
effort.  The  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of  Pliiladelphia, 
comprised  of  strong  white  and  colored  citizens  of  that  city,  was 
made  possible  through  the  activities  and  help  of  the  two  last-named 
organizations.  This  committee,  seated  at  Philadelphia,  a  point  in 
which  Negro  life  is  very  important,  would  have  done  inestimable 
work  of  value  for  the  department  had  the  future  allowed  a  contin- 
uance of  the  complete  field  work  of  the  Negro  Economics  Service. 

As  this  report  goes  to  the  press,  a  statement  has  come  from  Erie, 
Pa.,  to  the  effect  that  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  of 
that  city  is  still  holding  regular  meetings,  in  an  advisory  capacity, 
with  regard  to  the  present  labor  problems  of  that  vicinity.  This  is 
of  special  significance  in  view  of  the  fact  that  nearly  a  year  has  clasped 
since  the  permanent  work  conducted  by  the  department  at  Erie, 
ceased  to  function.  The  statement  referred  to  emphasizes  a  cordial 
racial  relationship  at  Erie  and  bespeaks  a  high  respect  on  the  part  of 
employers  and  employees,  white  and  colored,  for  the  results  accom- 
plished by  the  committee. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 
REPORT  OF  WORK  IN  VIRGINIA. 

The  work  of  organization  in  this  State  was  very  easily  launched 
after  conference  with  the  executive  committee  of  the  Negro  Organiza- 
tion Society,  which  already  had  branch  organizations  in  many 
localities  of  the  State,  both  rural  and  city.  The  executive  secretary 
of  the  State  National  Council  of  Defense  very  readily  approved  of 
our  plans  and  directed  the  chairmen  of  the  county  councils  through- 
out the  State  to  appoint  three  white  representatives  for  service  as 
cooperating  members  for  our  local  Negro  workers'  advisory  com- 
mittees. We  soon  had,  therefore,  committees  established  in  about 
60  counties  and  5  cities  of  the  State  and  an  office  established  at  Rich- 
mond with  Mr.  T.  C.  Erwin,  formerly  executive  secretary  of  the  Negro 
Organization  Society,  in  charge. 

A  series  of  local  conferences  betw.een  white  employers  and  Negro 
workers  for  making  out  plans  and  adjustment  of  misunderstandings 
were  held  in  Richmond,  Alexandria,  Roanoke,  Norfolk,  Petersburg, 
and  Portsmouth.  A  special  note  may  be  given  of  the  cooperative 
action  of  the  State  Council  of  National  Defense  in  dealing  successfully 
with  a  very  critical  situation  of  friction  between  white  and  colored 
carpenters  at  Camp  Lee. 

One  of  the  outstanding  results  of  these  conferences  was  the  hand- 
ling of  an  apparent  labor  shortage  at  Norfolk.  The  following  is  a 
brief  statement  of  facts:  The  chamber  of  commerce  discovered  that 
many  activities  of  the  city  on  which  Governmental  projects  depended 
was  suffering  from  lack  of  labor.  At  the  same  time  there  seemed  to  be 
large  numbers  of  able-bodied  men  in  the  city.  The  labor  shortage 
committee  was  appointed  and  an  announcement  made  that  there 
would  be  a  campaign  of  officers  of  the  law  to  compel  men  to  go  to 
work  or  to  go  to  jail.  As  this  affected  Negro  workers  very  largely,  Mr. 
P.  B.  Young,  chairman  of  the  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee 
took  up  the  question  with  the  labor  shortage  committee,  pointing  out 
to  them  that  such  a  plan  would  not  serve  to  get  workers  but  to  drive 
them  from  the  city.  A  substitute  plan  was  offered  by  the  advisory 
committee  to  carry  on  an  educational  campaign,  laying  before  the 
workere  at  mass  meetings  the  labor  shortage  confronting  the  com- 
munity and  its  meaning  to  the  city  and  to  uie  Government,  with  an 
appeal  for  volunteers.  This  plan  was  agreed  to,  and  a  series  of  street 
addresses  were  made  at  night  on  the  most  popular  street  corners  in 
the  districts  frequented  by  Negroes.  After  a  ten  days'  campaign  of 
this  kind  employment  offices  were  overrun  with  volunteer  workers 
and  there  were  more  men  than  were  needed  on  the  jobs. 

The  office  of  the  supervisor  received  regular  reports  from  over  the 
State  of  the  Negro  labor  situation  and  gave  special  assistance  as  a 
result  in  meeting  the  farm  labor  shortage  wherever  possible.  Special 
educational  campaigns  were  carried   on   throughout  the  State  by 

119 


120  THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

means  of  bulletins  giving  information  to  the  local  committees  on 
war  labor  needs  and  furnishing  material  on  employment,  health, 
housing,  and  recreation  that  might  be  passed  to  the  congregations 
within  the  territory  of  each  committee. 

The  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  was  also  associated  with  the 
director  of  the  Boys'  Working  Reserve  for  the  State  of  Virginia,  and 
directed  the  begimiing  of  that  work  among  colored  boys  of  the  State 
to  assist  in  supplying  the  farm  labor  shortage  during  the  farming 
season  of  1918  and  the  spring  season  of  1919. 

When  the  Housing  Bm-eau  proposed  the  establishment  of  a  model 
community  at  Truxtun,  the  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  very  early 
was  in  touch  with  some  of  the  strong  colored  citizens  of  Portsmouth, 
near  by.  A  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee,  with  Mr.  W.  H. 
Jennings  as  chairman,  was  formed.  Through  them  there  was  devel- 
oped contact  with  the  officers  of  the  navy,  yards,  and  the  Housing 
Corporation  was  assisted  in  getting  suitable  residents  for  the  houses 
of  the  project  when  opened. 

A  few  weeks  after  the  first  blocks  of  houses  were  occupied  there 
appeared  need  for  continued  assistance  in  getting  these  residents 
adjusted  to  the  new  community  and  in  securing  cooperation  among 
the  families.  The  supervisor  of  Negro  economics  for  Virginia  there- 
fore gave  considerable  attention  to  this  in  cooperation  with  the  local 
advisory  committee  of  Portsmouth  for  help  in  stimulating  the  pride 
of  the  new  residents  in  their  community  and  in  efforts  to  make 
Truxtun  a  model  in  every  respect  by  keeping  the  buildings  in  the 
model  condition  they  were  when  first  occupied,  and  the  lawns  and 
surrounding  grounds  in  first-class  condition. 

After  a  few  weeks  it  became  evident  that  it  was  desirable  to  have 
a  Negro  operating  representative  put  in  charge  of  the  project. 
The  United  States  Housing  Corporation  appointed  Mr.  Fred  D. 
McCracken,  who  had  been  with  the  Housing  Bureau  for  more  than 
a  year,  first  as  assistant  to  the  chief  of  the  United  States  Homes 
Registration  and  Placement  Service,  in  Washington,  and  later  as  a 
traveling  representative  of  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation. 
Mr.  McCracken  took  charge  as  operating  representative  of  Truxtun 
in  July,  1919. 

This  Truxtun  project  consists  of  254  family  houses  with  modern 
improvements,  including  electricity,  hot  and  cold  water,  with  garden 
and  lawn  space  for  each  house,  all  being  either  detached  or  semi- 
detached residences.  There  are  four  stores  and  a  modern  brick 
school  with  10  rooms  all  on  one  floor. 

Not  only  did  the  operating  representative  get  the  support  of  the 
Negi'o  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of  Portsmouth,  but  he  soon 
formed  an  association  of  the  householders  of  the  community,  divid- 
ing the  town  into  districts,  with  a  captain  over  each  district.  These 
captains  formed  a  sort  of  town  council  for  advice  and  help  to  the 
manager  in  directing  the  affairs  of  the  town. 

The  project,  mider  his  management,  has  continued  with  marked 
success,  including  the  conduct  of  the  public  school  as  soon  as  the 
fine  school  building  was  completed.  Wlien  the  time  came  for  selling 
the  homes  to  the  householders  the  volunteer  organization  of  captains 
and  householders  was  very  helpful  in  inducing  those  who  were  then 
renting  the  properties  to  become  the  purchasers.     All  of  the  houses 


THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  121 

have  been  taken  on  an  easy-payment  purchase  plan.     The  Housing 
Corporation  no  longer  fui'nisnes  the  funds  for  taking  care  of  the 

Eublic  utilities,  these  now  being  supported  out  of  taxes  which  the 
ouseholders  have  levied  upon  themselves. 

There  was  inaugurated  a  system  of  messages  to  be  delivered  by 
representatives  of  the  local  advisory  committees  to  Negro  audiences 
gathered  on  various  occasions  in  different  localities.  These  mes- 
sages acquainted  the  people  with  the  labor  needs,  opportunities  and 
conditions.  At  the  time  the  service  was  discontinued  a  series  of 
economic  surveys  with  special  intensive  survey  of  Norfolk,  Va., 
were  being  planned  for  several  cities  in  cooperation  with  local  offi- 
cials and  citizens.  These  surveys  were  to  include  living  conditions 
of  Negro  workers,  such  as  housing  surveys,  sanitation,  etc. 

Tlie  constitution  of  the  Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of 
Virginia  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the  other  States,  and 
shows  so  concretely  how  effectively  cooperative  connections  were 
made  with  the  State  and  local  private  organizations  in  existence 
that  it  is  incorporated  herewith  the  account  of  the  work  of  Virginia 
instead  of  in  an  appendix: 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  NEGRO  WORKERS'  ADVISORY  COMMITTEE  OF 

VIRGINIA. 

Article  I.  Name. — The  name  of  this  committee  shall  be  the 
Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of  Virginia. 

Art.. II.  Purpose. — The  purpose  of  this  committee  shall  be  to 
study,  plan,  and  advise  in  a  cooperatit^e  spirit  and  manner  with 
employers  of  Negro  labor,  with  Negro  workers  and  with  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  in  securing  from  Negro  laborers  greater 
production  in  industry  and  agriculture  for  winning  the  war  through 
increasing  regularity,  application  and  efficiency,  through  increasing 
the  morale  of  Negro  workers,  and  through  improving  their  general 
condition. 

Art.  III.  MemhersMp. — ^The  membership  of  this  committee  shall 
be  composed  of  not  more  than  thirty  persons — colored  men  and 
women  of  Virginia.  At  least  five  members  shall  be  women.  Seven 
members  of  this  committee  shall  be  chosen  from  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  Negro  Organization  Society  (Inc-.),  who  shaU  be  subject 
to  reelection  on  the  same  terms  of  election  as  other  members.  The 
chairman  of  the  Virginia  Council  of  Defense,  the  Federal  Director 
of  the  United  States  Employment  Service,  the  chairman  of  the  War 
Labor  Board,  and  such  other  white  citizens  as  may  be  appointed  by 
the  L^nited  States  Department  of  Labor  shall  be  cooperating  members. 
Governor  Westmoreland  Davis  shall  be  Honorary  Chairman. 

Art.  IV.  Executive  board. — There  shall  be  an  executive  board  of 
nine  chosen  from  the  general  committee.  At  least  two  members 
of  the  executive  board  shall  be  women,  and  three  members  shall  be 
chosen  from  the  central  committee  of  the  Negro  Organization  Society 
(Inc.),  subject  to  the  same  terms  of  election  as  other  members. 

Art.  V.  Appointments. — The  members  of  the  committee  and  of 
the  executive  board  shall  upon  recommendation  be  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  Labor,  who  shall  also  designate  the  chairman  and  the 
secretary.  These  officers  shall  serve  for  both  the  advisory  committee 
and  the  executive  board. 


122  THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAE. 

Upon  the  first  appointment,  one-third  of  the  members  of  both  the 
advisory  committe  and  its  executive  board  shall  be  appointed  to 
serve  until  January  1,  1919;  one-tliird  to  serve  until  June  1,  1919; 
and  one-third  to  serve  until  January  1,  1920.  Thereafter,  one-tliird 
of  the  membership  of  the  committee  and  its  executive  board  shall  be 
appointed  every  six  months  to  serve  for  a  term  of  six  months.  The 
chairman  and  secretary  shall  serve  for  periods  of  six  months  each, 
subject  to  reappointment.  There  shall  be  a  treasurer  appointed  by 
the  executive  board.  He  shall  be  under  bond  for  the  faithful  per- 
formance of  such  duties  as  the  executive  board  may  designate. 

Art.  VI.  Meetings. — Section  1.  The  advisory  committee  shall 
meet  at  least  once  every  six  months  and  at  such  other  times  as  the 
executive  board  may  decide.  Fifteen  members  shall  constitute  a 
quorum. 

Sec.  2.  The  executive  board  shall  meet  at  least  once  every  other 
month  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  chairman  and  secretary  shall 
decide,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  board.  Six  members  shall 
constitute  a  cjuorum.  The  chairman  shall  be  required  to  call  a  meet- 
ing of  the  executive  board  upon  a  written  request  of  five  members 
of  the  advisory  committee,  of  the  board,  or  of  both. 

Sec.  3.  The  meeting  place  of  the  advisory  committee  and  the 
executive  board  shall  be  the  State  Capitol  unless  otherwise  ordered 
by  the  executive  board  and  approved  by  the  Department  of  Labor. 

Art.  VII.  By-laws. — The  executive  board  shall  make  such  by- 
laws and  rules  for  the  conduct  of  business  as  seem  best,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  advisory  committee  and  the  Department  of 
Labor. 

Art.  VIII.  Powers  of  the  executive  hoard. — ^The  executive  board 
shall  transact  all  business,  make  plans,  enter  into  agreements,  and 
perform  such  other  acts  as  may  be  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  pur- 
pose of  this  committee.  All  such  transactions,  plans,  agreements, 
or  acts  shall  be  subject  to  revision  by  the  advisory  committee  and 
the  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  through  its  duly-authorized 
representatives. 

Art.  IX.  Count;/  committees. — The  executive  board  shall  nominate 
for  each  county  of  the  State  having  in  their  judgment  a  sufficient 
Negro  population  a  county  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  of 
not  more  than  eleven  persons,  at  least  two  of  whom  must  be  women. 
This  committee  shall  consist  of  one  member  from  each  magisterial 
district  in  the  county  and  three  members  from  the  county  at  large, 
provided,  however,  that  no  county  advisory  committee  shall  consist 
of  more  than  eleven  members.  Five  members  so  nominated  are  to 
be  appointed  by  the  Department  of  Labor  upon  recommendation  of 
the  Negro  Organization  Societ}^  (Inc.),  or  its  central  committee.  A 
member  of  the  respective  county  councils  of  defense  and  such  other 
white  citizens  as  may  be  selected  by  the  Governor  of  Virginia,  or  liis 
duly  authorized  representative,  shall  be  cooperating  members  of  the 
county  advisory  committee. 

Art.  X.  City  committee. — The  executive  board  shall  nominate  for 
each  city  of  the  State  having  in  their  judgment  a  sufficient  Negro 
population  a  city  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  of  not  more 
than  twenty-fivemembers,  at  least  one-fifth  of  whom  shah  be  women. 
A  majorit}^  of  the  city  advisory  committee  shall  constitute  a  quorum 
for  the  transaction  of  business.     Those  nominated  for  tliis  committee 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  123 

shall  be  appointed  by  the  Department  of  Labor  upon  recommend- 
ation of  the  Negro  Organization  Society  (Inc.),  or  its  central  com- 
mittee. 

Art.  XI.  Neigliborhood  committees.— ^2ich  district  member  of 
the  county  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  shall  appoint  in  his 
district  a  neighborhood  committee  consisting  of  one  member  for  every 
five  to  fifteen  families  in  the  district.  The  district  member  of  the 
county  committee  shall  be  chairman  of  this  neighborhood  commit- 
tee and  shall  be  held  responsible  for  the  work  of  the  committee. 

Art.  XII.  Finances. — -Neither  this  organization,  its  executive 
board,  nor  the  county  or  neighborhood  committees,  nor  any  of  their 
executive  boards  shall  have  power  or  authority  to  incur  expenses  or 
make  any  financial  agreements  or  contracts,  wliich  shall  in  any  way 
obligate  the  State  of  Virginia,  the  United  States  Department  of 
Labor,  or  the  Negro  Organization  Society  (Inc.)  No  debts  shall  be 
incurred  by  this  committee  or  its  executive  board  or  by  any  county 
or  neighborhood  committees  or  their  respective  executive  boards 
unless  previously  provided  for.  The  treasurer  of  this  committee 
shaU  keep  account  of  receipts  and  expenditures  and  he  shall  keep 
any  funds  intrusted  to  liim  deposited  in  such  banks  or  trust  companies 
as  the  executive  board  shall  decide. 

Art.  XIII.  Amemlments. — ^Amendments  may  be  made  to  this 
constitution  by  two-tliirds  vote  at  a  regular  and  duly  called  meeting 
of  tills  committee,  provided  such  amendment  shall  have  been  pre- 
viously approved  by  the  governor  of  Virginia,  or  liis  duly  authorized 
representative,  and  the  United  States  Department  of  Labor  and  the 
Negro  Organization  Society  (Inc). 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

NEGRO  WOMEN  IN  INDUSTRY. 

SUMMARY   OF   REPORTS    MADE   BY   MRS.    HELEN   B.    IRVIN,   SPECIAL 
AGENT  OF  THE  WOMEN'S  BUREAU  IN  1918-19. 

Desiring  to  give  recognition  to  all  major  questions  affecting  women 
in  industry  and  keeping  in  mind  the  declared  purpose  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  ''to  foster,  promote,  and  develop  the 
welfare  of  wage  earners  of  the  United  States,"  the  Women's  Bureau, 
early  in  its  career  as  the  Woman  in  Industry  vService,  made  pro- 
vision to  include  in  its  program  a  study  of  the  problems  of  Negro 
women  in  industry.  The  summary  of  data  here  given  was  secured 
from  several  industrial  centers  where  typical  conditions  were  known 
to  prevail  during  visits  made  within  the  seven  months  begimiing 
December  1,  1918,  and  ending  Jmie  30,  1919. 

This  summary  is  by  no  means  extensive.  One  hundred  and  fifty- 
two  plants,  employing  more  than  21,000  Negi-o  workers,  were  visited, 
and  the  figures  and  statements  here  presented  cover  recent  phases 
and  developments  in  this  industrial  situation. 

The  plants  and  industries  visited  were  located  in  Illinois,  Ohio, 
and  Missouri,  and  in  portions  of  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Virginia.  In  a  number  of  cases  recommendations  were  made  for 
the  improvement  of  conditions.  Wherever  subsequent  information 
could  be  obtained  showing  that  action  had  followed  these  recom- 
mendations and  some  instructive  experience  resulted  a  statement 
has  been  included  in  this  summary. 

ESTDUSTRIAL    OPPORTUNITIES    FOR    NEGRO    WOMEN. 

The  total  number  of  Negroes  10  years  of  age  and  over  who  were 
gainfully  employed  in  1910  as  reported  by  the  Thirteenth  Census 
was  5,192,535;  of  these,  3,178,554  were  male  workers  and  2,013,981 
were  female  workers.  Of  the  female  workers,  1,051,137  were  included 
in  agriculture,  forestry,  and  animal  husbandry.  Only  8,313  were 
listed  in  trade  and  transportation  occupations,  and  67,967  in  manu- 
facturing and  mechanical  pursuits.' 

While  these  figures  include  women  in  all  sections  of  the  country, 
of  wide  range  of  training,  and  of  aU  ages  above  10  yeai^,  it  is  reported 
that,  on  an  average,  Negro  women  in  industry  are  between  16  and 
30  years  of  age.  With  the  great  labor  shortage  during  the  war, 
especially  in  northern  industries,  colored  women  had  the  opportunity 
to  enter  industrial  pursuits  never  opened  to  them  before.  For  the 
country  as  a  whole  there  are  at  present  no  available  figures  to  show 
the  full  extent  to  which  they  embraced  the  opportunities.  The 
figures  included  below,  however,  are  so  typical  as  to  give  a  good 
indication  for  the  territory  covered.  As  a  result  of  recent  migration 
in  the  North,  these  women  were  frequently  new  to  urban  life  and  to 
the  factory  type  of  community.  They  were,  therefore,  largely  in 
process  of  adjustment  to  unaccustomed  conditions,  climatic,  social, 
occupational,  and  economic. 

1  Department  of  Commerce,  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Negro  Population  1790-1915.  General  Tables  Nos. 
17  and  19. 

124 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 


125 


The  great  need  for  workers  to  replace  men  drafted  for  Army  service 
brought  Avomen  into  occupations  not  heretofore  considered  within 
the  range  of  their  possible  activities,  Negro  women  shared  to  some 
extent  these  new  fields.  In  response  to  the  industrial  demand, 
large  numbers  dropped  their  accustomed  tasks  in  the  home  and  in 
domestic  service  to  take  up  the  newer,  more  attractive  work  of 
supplying  the  need  of  the  fighting  world  for  the  products  of  industry. 

In  visits  to  152  typical  plants  employing  Negro  women  it  was 
found  that  they  were  working  at  many  different  processes  and  under 
very  different  working  conditions.  Table  VII  which  follows,  gives 
an  outline  of  the  kind  of  work  done  by  the  women  and  the  industries 
in  which  they  were  employed : 

Table  VII. — Industrial  occupations  of  21,547  Negro  women  in  (approximately)  75 
specific  processes,  at  152  plants,  during  the  period  Dec.  1,  1918,  to  June  SO,  1919. 


Number 

of 
plants  in- 
spected. 


Product. 


Bed  springs 

Brooms,  brushes. 
Canned  foods 


Clothing  (men's  and  women's). 


Cotton  mills  (cordage,  waste,  mops). 
Department  and  other  stores 


Furniture. 
Glassware. 
Hardware . 


Hosiery  and  knit  goods. 
Laundries 


Leather  goods 

Meats  and  meat  products  (stockyards 
abattoirs). 


Munitions 

Office  work  (Government  work,  mail- 
order houses). 


Rubber  goods . 
Tobacco 


Transportation . 


War  apparatus  (gas  masks,  aeroplane 
sails,  balloons). 


Processes  at  which  women  were 
employed. 


Number  of 
women  em- 
ployed, each 
specified 
process. 


Assembling,  miscellaneous 

Machine  operating 

•  irading broom  corn,  binding  bristles 
Pitting,  packing,  crystaUizing,  and 

canningfruits  and  vegetables. 

Cutting 

Draping 

Hand  finishing 

Machine  sewing 

Feeding  and  tending  machines 

Sorting  cotton , 

Elevator  operators 

Saleswomen 

Stock  girls,  maids 

Wrappers , 

Operating  lathes 

Pohshing  desks,  pianos .  -. 

Making  blown  glass 

Matron ,  timekeeper 

Miscellaneous      machine      operating 

punch  and  drill  presses  soldering, 

welding. 

Finishing  knitted  garments 

Operating  knitting  machines 

Steam  and  dry  cleaning — 

Washing  and  ironing  by  power  ma- 
chinery. 
Grading,  cleaning  and  curing,  tanning 

hides. 

Cleaning  and  curing  offal 

Preparing,  curing,  and  canning  meats. 

Testing  hides 

Time  keeping 

Trimming  and  cleaning  viscera 

Loading  shells 

Billing  macliines  and  addressograph 

operators. 

Card  fiUng,  clerking 

Expert  investigating 

Packing  and  shipping  goods 

Sldlled  field  work  (lectures,  etc.) 

S witchboa  rd  operatin  g , .   

Typists,  stenographers,  bookkeepers. . 
M'aking  and  vulcanizing  motor  tires, 

tubes,  rubber  toys,  etc. 

Making  cigars 

Preparing  snuff  and  chewing  tobacco. . 

Stemming 

Weighing  and  inspecting 

Cleaning  and  repairing  automobiles . . . 

Flagging  trains 

Salvaging  from  railroad  wreckage 

Power-machine  stitching 


4 

Ifi 
190 
311 

2 

5 
11 
632 
190 
100 
110 

3 

228 

37 

7 
25 
102 

2 
360 


3a 

692 
11 
146 

130 

2,990 
117 
37 
2 
136 
499 
331 

2,705 

7 

182 

8 

2 

2,303 

114 


2,373 

5,965 

2 

215 

18 
84 
57 

21,547 


126  THE  NEGRO   AT  WORK  DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

It  will  be  seen  from  a  study  of  this  table  that  the  two  industries 
employing  the  greatest  number  of  Negro  women  were  the  meat- 
packing industry,  where  3,282  were  employed  in  the  stockyards  and 
abattoirs,  and  the  tobacco  industry,  wnere  5,965  were  employed  at 
stemming  tobacco,  and  2,373  in  the  preparation  of  chewing  tobacco 
and  of  snuff. 

Another  very  large  group  were  doing  office  work,  5,538  being 
employed  in  16  offices.  The  other  occupations  ranged  from  the 
simple  work  of  sorting  and  packing  to  the  operation  of  various 
machines  requiring  skill  and  dexterity.  Some  of  these  occupations, 
such  as  loading  shells,  operating  lathes,  cleaning  and  repairing  auto- 
mobiles, flagging  trains,  and  salvaging  from  railroad  wreckage,  were 
new  to  all  women.  On  the  greater  immber  of  processes,  however, 
white  women  had  been  employed  many  years  before  Negro  women 
were  taken  on. 

During  the  war  the  employment  of  large  numbers  of  women  at 
new  tasks  in  munitions  plants  and  other  war  industries  led  to  a 
shortage  of  labor  in  the  textile  and  garment  factories,  which  had 
long  been  great  employers  of  women.  As  a  result  many  textile 
and  garment  manufacturers,  being  quite  unable  to  secure  the  requi- 
site number  of  white  workers  for  their  plants,  accepted  and  even 
appealed  to  Negro  girls  and  women  to  relieve  the  situation.  The 
work  of  1,670  girls  and  women  in  textile  and  garment  trades  was 
carefully  observed.  Several  thousand  others  were  known  to  be 
similarly  employed. 

In  several  arsenals  and  munition  plants  croups  oi  Negro  women 
were  found  mixing  chemicals,  loading  shells,  making  gas  masks, 
stitching  wings  for  aeroplanes,  and  engaging  in  similar  processes 
requiring  great  care,  skillful  fingers,  patriotism,  and  courage.  Most 
of  these  industries  were  housed  in  modern  fireproof  buildmgs,  well 
ventilated  to  carry  off  the  poisonous  fumes,  asbestos  partitioned  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  flames,  and  well  equipped  with  hose,  fire 
escapes,  and  first-aid  apparatus  for  use  in  the  occasional  accidents 
that  appear  to  be  unavoidable  in  such  places. 

The  499  munition  makers  were  found  to  be  giving  satisfaction  as  a 
whole,  and  in  some  instances  were  reported  to  respond  more  readily 
than  others  for  doing  the  heavy  and  dangerous  portions  of  the  work. 
They  were  proud  of  their  unusual  tasks  and  of  their  uniforms,  and 
seem  to  have  appreciated  the  working  day  shorter  than  household 
hours  in  domestic  and  personal  service. 

In  abattoirs,  stockyards,  and  tanneries  Negro  women  were  en- 
gaged at  different  times  in  all  processes  except  the  actual  butchering 
and  inspecting  of  meats.  They  trimmed,  sorted,  and  graded  different 
portions  of  the  carcasses;  separated  and  cleaned  the  viscera;  prepared, 
cured,  and  canned  the  meats;  and  graded,  cleaned,  cured,  and  tanned 
the  hides  for  making  articles  of  leather. 

In  Government  clothing  factories  and  in  private  establishments  on 
Government  contracts  they  made  overalls,  army  shirts,  and  dungarees 
in  large  numbers.  In  other  factories  they  made  bolts,  nuts,  rivets, 
screws,  motor  accessories,  and  metal  buckets.  In  rubber  plants  they 
made  automobile  tires,  tubes,  parts  of  rubber  boots,  shoe  heels,  toys, 
and  hospital  necessities,  such  as  rubber  gloves,  pads,  and  hot-water 
bottles.     In  transportation  service  they  cleaned  cars,  acted  as  switch- 


127 


THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  127 

men  and  flagmen,  mended  roadbeds,  salvaged  small  parts  of  engines 
and  coaches  from  wreckage,  painted  and  made  simple  repairs  on 
automobiles,  and  occasionally  acted  as  chaufi'enrs. 

Power-laundry  work  has  furnished  the  opportunity  for  many 
Negro  girls  and  women  to  earn  a  livelihood.  In  considerable  numbers 
they  have  followed  into  the  factory  their  former  occupation  of  launder- 
ing clothing.  Under  good  factory  conditions  this  permits  of  escape 
from  the  more  undesirable  conditions  of  the  household  laundry 
service.  Because  of  the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  the  work,  and 
because  of  the  traditional  linking  of  Negro  women  to  such  tasks,  there 
has  been  in  most  places  little  objection  to  them  or  color  discrimi- 
nation against  them  in  laundries.  They  have  learned,  consequently, 
to  operate  all  kinds  of  power-laundry  machinery;  to  wash,  u"on, 
steam  or  dry  clean  garments  of  all  sorts,  as  well  as  to  do  the  hand 
finishing  that  is  still  in  considerable  demand. 

Many  of  these  industries  being  essential  in  peace  times,  it  is  prob- 
able that  large  numbers  of  the  Negro  women  who  were  drawn  into 
them  during  the  war  emergency,  and  have  made  good,  will  find  per- 
manent occupations  at  more  desirable  work  than  heretofore. 

In  these  industries  Negro  women  usually  fell  heir  to  the  less  desir- 
able occupations  or  processes.  As  a  whole,  however,  they  stuck  to 
these  jobs  and  manj^  won  advancement  to  higher  places  in  that  way. 
Many  are  still  to  be  found  spinning  coarse  yarn;  knitting  gloves, 
stockings,  and  underwear  of  cheap  grades;  making  lingerie,  fine 
waists,  silk  and  woolen  dresses,  coats,  caps,  overalls,  and  men's 
shirts. 

The  8,388  tobacco  workers  observed  in  the  factories  visited  were 
found  chiefly  in  southern  or  border-line  States,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  two  groups,  are  working  under  most  objectionable,  insanitary 
conditions.  Nearly  6,000  of  these  3^oung,  unskilled  girls,  work  in 
stemmeries,  where  they  prepare  the  stemmed  tobacco  for  chewing, 
cigar  making,  snufl',  and  cigarettes.  Ver}^  few  Negro  girls  are  found 
at  the  more  skilled  processes,  such  as  making  cigars.  For  this  work 
one  employment  manager  insisted  upon  hiring  only  pretty  types,  of 
rather  foreign  appearance,  "in  order  that  they  may  be  regarded  by 
patrons  as  Cuban,  South  American,  or  Spanish."  Two  women  who 
were  employed  as  weighers  or  inspectors  were  found  to  be  both 
quick  and  accurate  in  their  judgment,  and  are  paving  the  way  for 
others. 

In  hotels  many  Negro  women  performed  the  services  of  cooks, 
dishwashers,  waitresses,  maids,  elevator  operators,  and  even  bell 
girls.  These  latter  were  afterWL,rd  quite  generally  replaced  by  boys 
and  men,  the  girls  being  unable  to  handle  most  of  the  luggage  of 
patrons.  The  wages  of  maids  and  waitresses  were  usually  low,  the 
workers  being  largely  dependent  upon  "'tips." 

Elevator  girls  were  operating  both  in  hotels  and  in  department 
stores  as  well  as  in  many  office  buildings.  They  worked  on  alter- 
nate long  and  short  "shifts,"  with  brief  rest  periods,  and  carried 
passengers  or  freight  as  required.  However,  they  were  not  usually 
compelled  to  lift  packages  into  or  out  of  their  cars.  Not  only 
have  these  girls  succeeded  as  elevator  operators,  but  also  as  maids, 
stock  girls,  bundle  wrappers,  and  even,  where  given  the  opportunity, 
as  saleswomen.     Several  employers  expressed  a  marked  preference 


128  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

for  Negro  stock  girls,  for  reason  that  a  greater  variety  of  service 
might  be  demanded  of  them.  For  instance,  in  some  stores  they  came 
to  work  15  minutes  before  schedule  time  in  order  to  polish  mirrors 
and  display  cases. 

Careful  observation  showed  that  bundle  wrappers  working  in 
sight  of  customers  of  stores  were  often  of  types  whose  racial  identity 
was  doubtful,  while  those  behind  the  screens,  as  in  packing  and 
shipping  departments,  were  more  distinctly  negroid  in  complexion. 
Three  saleswomen  of  discernible  Negro  blood  were  of  good  appear- 
ance and  showed  keen  intelligence  about  their  work.  Three  or  four 
quick  and  clever  stock  girls  were  found  acting  as  sales  assistants. 

Excepting  Government  appointees,  of  whom  varying  numbers 
have  held  positions  under  civil-service  regulations  since  the  period 
of  reconstruction  following  the  Civil  War,  comparatively  few  Negro 
women  were  employed  at  office  work  until  1917.  The  general  spur 
to  industry  consequent  upon  America's  participation  in  the  war,  the 
shifting  of  workers  from  home  and  farm  to  office,  factory,  and  bat- 
tlefield made  opportunities  for  greater  numbers  at  clerical  tasks 
than  ever  before.  In  this  emergency  several  thousand  Negro  women 
found  opportunities  to  play  their  part.  The  total  of  5,538  found 
doing  office  work  qualified  in  the  offices  of  shops,  of  mail-order  and 
other  business  houses,  as  typists,  stenographers,  and  bookkeepers, 
2,303  were  observed  at  this  work.  There  were  2,705  filing  clerks, 
331  billing  and  addressograph  operators,  and  182  packing  and  ship- 
ping clerks.  These  included,  of  course,  forewomen  and  super  risors 
of  the  various  groups  of  workers.  Clerical  work  was  being  done  for 
the  Government  under  civil-service  and  special  classification.  Also, 
there  were  15  special  investigators  and  lecturers  and  2  telephone 
switchboard  operators. 

A  majority  of  these  clerical  workers,  both  in  general  commercial 
and  industrial  plants  and  in  Government  service,  were  given  tem- 
porary appointments  under  the  war  emergency.  Many  of  them 
were  being  released  after  the  armistice  to  make  way  for  discharged 
soldiers  or  because  need  for  their  services  no  longer  existed.  Othei-s 
were  frankly  told  that  such  positions  as  remained  available  were 
intended  for  white  workers,  and  that  they  had  been  used  merely 
because  no  others  could  at  that  time  be  obtained.  In  known 
instances,  however,  Negro  girls  and  women  acquitted  themselves  in 
so  satisfactory  a  manner  that  they  have  been  retained,  these  having 
made  permanent  places  for  themselves.  Also,  a  number  of  instances 
of  individual  success  and  achievement  are  known  to  have  been 
rewarded  by  promotion  and  by  assurance  of  continuance  during 
satisfactory  service. 

The  signing  of  the  armistice,  bringing  about  a  gradual  cessation 
of  war  industries  or  a  change  in  factory  processes  and  products, 
probably  meant  the  permanent  dismissal  of  many  of  these  Negro 
women  industrial  workers.  Some  have  been  provided  for  in  the 
new  plans  of  their  employers  and  others  have  returned  to  their 
prewar  occupations.  Subsequent  study  is  in  progress  to  ascertain 
to  what  extent  these  Negro  women  have  found  a  permanent  foothold 
in  these  industrial  occupations. 


THE   NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR.  129 

CONDITIONS    OF    EMPLOYMENT. 

In  individual  plants  conditions  were  found  to  vary  from  the  least 
desirable  to  the  most  satisfactory,  as  judged  by  modern  industrial 
standards.  Outstanding  examples  of  these  diftorences  are  to  be 
found  particularly  in  types  of  factory  work  usually  denoted  as 
"women's  trades,"  such  as  textile,  clothing,  and  tobacco  industries. 
On  the  whole,  the  working  conditions  where  Negro  women  were 
employed  along  with  white  women  the  conditions  appeared  to  be 
similar.     A  few  typical  cases  will  illustrate  the  situation. 

In  a  hoisery  mill  employing  Negro  women  no  provision  was  made 
for  first  aid,  although  slight  accidents  are  frequent.  Other  facilities 
for  the  comfort  of  the  workers  were  at  a  minimum.  The  plant  had 
no  lunchroom  or  lockers.  There  were  but  two  toilets  and  two 
sinks,  and  one  separate  faucet  with  a  tin  cup  attached  supplied  the 
drinking  water  for  the  entire  group.  There  was  neither  soap  nor 
warm  water  for  washing  the  hands,  although  the  workers  were 
expected  to  keep  the  white  hosiery  quite  free  of  any  soiling.  They 
were  taxed  a  few  cents,  for  each  soiled  spot  found  by  the  inspector. 

On  the  other  hand,  another  establishment,  manufacturing  men's 
shirts,  offered  thoroughly  desirable  working  conditions  with  adequate 
facilities  for  the  comfort  of  its  employees.  Each  unit,  consisting  of 
140  to  200  girls,  was  furnished  with  an  instructor  for  processes  that 
were  new,  whether  carried  on  by  hand  or  by  power  machine.  The 
shops  were  well  lighted  and  heated  and  were  fitted  with  modern 
machinery  that  runs  with  little  noise  and  gives  to  the  operators  pro- 
tection from  accident.  A  small  dispensary  and  first-aid  room,  with  a 
nurse,  were  available.  There  was  an  excellent  lunch  room,  with  food 
furnished  at  cost.  There  were  lockers,  clean  and  adequate  toilets, 
and  sinks  with  soap  and  sanitary  towels.  All  workers  started  with 
the  same  basic  wage,  with  increases  to  more  highly  paid  piecework  as 
rapidly  as  their  skill  permitted.  ^ 

Good  and  bad  conditions  were  found  also  among  industries  here- 
tofore carried  on  entirely  by  men.  For  instance,  a  plant  manufac- 
turing buckets  and  other  sheet-metal  products  was  very  poorly 
heated,  lighted,  and  ventilated.  Its  uneven  cement  floor  held  pools 
of  water  that  had  overflowed  from  the  cooling  tanks.  Generously 
spilled  paint  and  solder  caused  an  uncertain  footing  in  the  dim  aisles. 

One  room,  about  9  by  12  feet,  with  a  single  toilet  in  the  corner  and 
with  hooks  above  two  benches  along  the  walls,  furnished  the  only 
arrangements  for  women  to  change  street  clothing  and  working 
apparel  and  for  the  storage  of  coats  and  skirts  of  changed  garments. 
There  being  no  lockers,  garments  of  workers  were  frequently  reported 
as  lost  from  the  hooks.  Two  sinks  just  outside  the  door  of  this  room 
were  supplied  merely,  with  cold  water,  and  only  roller  towels  were 
furnished. 

Under  these  conditions  two  grouj)s  of  35  Negro  women  each 
worked  on  alternate  day  and  night  shifts.  One  group  worked  from 
7  p.m.  until  5  a,  m.,  with  a  half  hour  at  midnight  for  lunch.  Because 
of  the  extreme  suburban  location  of  this  plant  and  the  inconvenience 
to  cars  these  employees  were  obliged  to  walk  about  half  mile  across 
an  unpaved,  poorly  lighted,  wind-swept  area  which  was  unpleasant 
even  on  a  clear  winter  midday,  not  to  mention  inclement  weather. 

1989^-21 9 


130  THE  NEGKO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

A  ^roup  of  young  Negro  women,  selected  and  sent  by  the  local 
United  States  Employment  office  in  response  to  an  urgent  appeal 
from  the  woman  proprietor,  left  this  factory  in  a  body  on  their  first 
day  because  of  the  abusive  language  of  a  foreman  in  response  to  their 
protest  against  the  conditions  under  which  they  were  expected  to 
work. 

In  marked  contrast  to  these  conditions  were  those  found  in  an 
immense  plant  which  was  making  bolts,  nuts,  small  parts  of  motors, 
and  other  machine-shop  products.  The  several  hundred  women 
employees  were  native-born  white,  Negro,  and  foreign-born  of- 
several  nationalities.  The  workrooms  of  this  factory  were  light 
and  clean,  neither  unduly  noisy  nor  overcrowded.  The  punch  and 
drill  presses  were  provided  with  guards  to  reduce  the  number  of 
accidents.  The  Negro  women  wore  caps  and  overalls  and  were 
directed  by  a  Negro  forewoman.  The  plant  was  adequately  equipped 
with  toilets,  washrooms,  and  lockers.  There  was  a  plain  but  clean 
lunchroom,  a  dispensary,  with  first-aid  and  visiting-nurse  service 
without  charge.  There  was  also  a  company  store  where  employees 
could  purchase  uniforms,  other  plain  clothing,  and  a  few  necessary 
foodstufi's  at  wholesale  rates.  A  training  school  ofi'ered  certain 
instruction  during  a  limited  number  of  hours  each  working  week. 
There  was  apparently  no  special  arrangements  made  because  of  race, 
except  that  the  colored  women  worked  in  a  group  to  themselves  and 
were  superintended  by  a  Negro  forewoman. 

Realizing  that  the  opinion  of  their  employers  would  seriously 
aftect  the  future  of  Negro  women  in  industry,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  secure  the  opinions  of  superintendents  or  other  officials  dealing 
with  Negro  women  in  these  plants.  Of  34  employers  who  expressed 
a  definite  opinion  on  this  subject,  14  said  that  they  found  the  work 
of  Negro  women  as  satisfactory  as  other  women  workers,  and  3 
found  their  work  better  than  that  of  the  white  women  they  were 
worldng  with  or  had  displaced.  Of  the  17  employers  who  felt  that 
the  work  of  Negro  women  did  not  compare  satisfactorily  with  that  of 
the  white  women,  7  reported  that  irregularity  of  attendance  was  the 
main  cause  for  dissatisfaction,  and  7  others  felt  that  the  output  of 
Negro  women  was  less  because  they  were  slower  workers. 

INDUSTRIAL   TRAINING. 

The  chief  of  the  problems  of  industrial  training  is  presented  by  the 
very  obvious  need  for  a  more  cai'efully  thought-out  plan  of  education 
for  Negro  women,  who  are  comparatively  new  to  industry  and  who 
have  no  adequate  standards  upon  which  to  base  their  estimate  of 
their  own  worth  or  the  requirements  of  their  occupations. 

If  private  and  public  facilities  were  to  be  generally  opened  to  Negro 
women  for  their  education  there  would  not  fail  to  be  a  very  general 
increase  in  the  efficiency  of  Negro  women  in  industry.  This  is  not 
education  in  the  usually  accepted  sense,  though  an  impartial  enforce- 
ment of  the  school  attendance  law  will  improve  economic  conditions 
for  future  groups  of  workers.  It  is  training  for  efficiency,  with-  its 
contributing  factors  of  personal  hygiene,  industrial  sense,  increasing 
skill,  and  realization  of  contractual  obligation.  It  is  the  development 
of  industrial  consciousness  through  the  fostering  of  pride  in  achieve- 
ment, through  increasing  personal  and  family  thrift  and  thi'ough 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WOEK    DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR.  131 

encouraging  an  attitude  of  constanc}'  toward  a  given  task  or  locality. 
This  type  of  education  is  essential  in  "  training  the  worker  on  the 

As  is  the  case  with  any  group  new  to  a  situation,  Kegro  women  on 
entering  industry  have  need  of  patient,  careful  training  in  all  proc- 
esses required  of  them  and  in  the  use  of  all  machiner}^  employed  in 
the  specific  work  assio;ned  to  them.  Such  training  plus  the  oppor- 
tunity to  advance  individuall}^  or  in  groups,  as  their  increasing  skill 
may  warrant,  has  been  found  profitable  by  most  of  the  employers 
who  are  awake  to  the  possil)ilities  of  Negro  women  as  workers. 
Eighty  per  cent  of  the  employers  interviewed  who  had  given  a  trial 
to  the  training-plus-opportunit}^  method  reported  little  or  no  diffi- 
culty with  these  workers,  while  30  per  cent  expressed  a  preference  for 
Negro  women  because  of  their  cheerfulness,  willingness,  and  loyalty 
in  response  to  fair  treatment. 

One  employer  who  had  instituted  these  courses  said:  ''We  are 
getting  all  we  hoped  for  and  more."  In  this  plant  the  gh'ls  were 
doing  clerical  work.  Each  girl  was  given  three  days'  special  training 
before  being  put  to  work.  Up  to  the  time  of  the  visit  (1919)  their 
work  was  so  satisfactory  that  a  large  number  were  employed.  The 
management  said  that  it  had  found  that  Negro  girls  did  just  as  good 
clerical  work  as  white  girls  as  soon  as  the  "  breaking-in "  training 
had  been  given. 

In  another  plant,  where  a  "supermtendent  of  service"  was  de- 
tailed to  supermtend  group  and  individual  trainmg  for  work  on  small 
machine  products,  it  was  reported  that  there  was  no  difference  be- 
tween the  work  or  attendance  of  the  native-born  white,  Negro,  and 
and  foreign -bom  women  workers.  This  plant  showed  in  the  kind  of 
women  employed  and  the  atmosphere  of  the  workroom  the  excellent 
results  of  the  absolutely  equal  chance  given  to  all  workers.  In  other 
plants  training  was  more  haphazard,  being  given  by  the  forewoman 
and  sometimes  by  fellow  workers.  It  was  from  such  establishments 
that  the  greater  number  of  complaints  of  inefficiency  and  slowness 
came. 

In  addition  to  courses  of  traming  supplied  by  the  employer  within 
his  plant  and  which  are  limited  to  the  actual  processes  in  use  in  his 
plant,  there  were  found  some  opportunities  for  Negro  women  in  the 
public  schools,  through  continuation  classes  or  night  schools. 

In  one  locality  a  plan  of  cooperation  for  such  extension  work  be- 
tween the  vocational  bureau  of  the  public  schools  and  a  privately 
controlled  industrial  school  was  feasible.  The  school  in  question  had 
already  launched  several  courses  designed  to  interest  the  young  work- 
ing girls  of  that  commmiity.  The  principal  was  quite  willing  to  ex- 
tend the  opportunity  to  Negro  women  workers,  making  such  course 
as  practically  attractive  as  the  school  facilities  would  permit.  At  the 
time  this  school  was  offering  courses  of  interest  to  housemaids,  cafe- 
teria workers,  butchers,  core  makers,  motor  mechanics,  and  various 
sorts  of  garment  workers,  including  makers  of  overalls,  shirts,  and 
women's  clothmg. 

Possibilities  for  decent,  sane,  healthful  recreation  for  the  average 
Negro  working  girl  and  woman  bemg  in  many  commmiities  dis- 
tressingly inadequate,  this  phase  of  educational  activity  is  very  es- 
sential to  efficiency.  It  appeared  wise  to  attempt  to  arouse  mterest 
in  this  matter  wherever  tne  situation  seemed  urgently  to  warrant  it. 


132  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAE. 

As  an  instance  of  what  can  be  done,  a  community  center  organization 
which  had  previously  taken  no  heed  of  the  300  to  400  colored  girls 
at  work  in  a  local  factory  was  persuaded  to  provide  for  them  a  weekly 
meeting  place  and  a  leader  of  games  and  athletics.  The  principal 
of  a  Negro  school  was  induced  to  appeal  to  the  school  authorities 
to  include  in  their  plan  for  a  new  building  some  provision  for  a  joint 
assembly  room  and  gymnasium.  Much  to  the  principal's  surprise 
the  appeal  met  a  favorable  reception,  and  the  people  of  the  little 
community  are  now  watching  the  erection  of  their  building  with  this 
addition. 

Several  recreational  clubs  of  different  sorts  have  been  organized 
in  churches,  and  a  certain  war  service  has  given  excellent  and  valu- 
able assistance  in  this  respect,  followmg  most  willingly  any  lead  or 
suggestion  that  might  be  given. 

A  very  important  part  of  the  work  which  was  done  by  the  Women's 
Bureau  in  connection  with  Negro  women  w^as  the  educational  talks 
explaining  to  various  OToups  interested  in  this  subject  the  standards 
and  policies  that  should  attain  in  establishments  emploj^ing  women 
and  girls. 

In  addition  to  the  courses  of  training  which  could  be  made  avail- 
able for  Negro  workers  in  the  private  or  public  schools,  there  could 
be  a  most  valuable  educational  stimulus  and  training  given  in  the 
various  leagues  and  clubs  of  industrial  women  workers  which  are 
organized  in  different  communities. 

METHODS    OF    SUPERVISION. 

If  the  Negro  woman  is  to  keep  and  increase  her  hold  in  industrial 
activities  of  the  country,  in  addition  to  special  training  to  fit  her  for 
the  work,  she  will  need  the  cooperation  oi  employers  who  understand 
the  special  problems  attending  her  employment,  and  who  will  make 
adjustments  and  establish  policies  accordingly.  Various  methods 
of  shop  management  in  plants  employing  Negro  and  white  workers 
together  were  noted  during  this  survey,  and  on  the  basis  of  successful 
experiments  that  were  observed  recommendations  were  made  for  the 
improvement  of  conditions  in  other  localities. 

In  one  northern  community  which  had  recently  been  subjected  to 
a  large  influx  of  Negroes  one  well-known  firm  had  already  put  into 
operation  a  plan  of  work  for  them  on  equal  pay  and  conditions  as 
other  workers.  The  results  were  not  only  satisfactory  but  were 
promising  of  most  desirable  further  development.  The  workers  were 
making  good  in  every  department.  Tlie  largest  numbers  naturally 
were  found  in  sections  where  mainly  manual  operations  were  required. 
Besides  the  many  operators  on  punch  and  drill  presses  there  were 
several  forewomen,  five  typists,  two  or  three  clerks,  two  messengers, 
two  elevator  operators,  a  first-aid  assistant,  a  postwoman,  and  a 
woman  chauffeur.  With  this  particular  fii-m  as  a  successful  examnle 
three  others  were  persuaded  to  give  their  Negro  workers  similar 
opportunity.  . 

Negro  women  supervisors  of  units  of  workers  of  their  o^^^l  kind 
were  gi^'ing  results.  One  very  successful  instance  of  such  super- 
vision can  be  used  as  an  example  of  what  might  be  accomplished 
through  the  more  general  adoption  of  the  plan.  This  unit  of  approx- 
imately 200  girls  in  a  large  mail-order  house  had  worked  for  about  a 


THE   NEGKO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD   WAR.  133 

year  under  the  supervision  of  an  intelligent  Negro  woman.  The 
work  of  these  girls  consisted  of  all  office  processes,  such  as  bookkeep- 
ing, stenograpliic  work,  typewriting,  and  operating  office  appliances 
as  well  as  packing  and  preparing  goods  for  shipment. 

These  workers  were  not  only  supervised  but  were  also  trained  and 
instructed  by  Negro  forewomen.  The  unit  had  a  slogan,  "Make 
good  100  per  cent."  So  successful  had  been  the  work  of  this  group 
that  shortly  after  their  dismissal  by  a  new,  unsympathetic  superin- 
tendent, they  were  reinstated  and  their  number  augmented,  because 
their  work  was  so  satisfactory  in  relation  to  the  larger  work  of  the 
entire  plant. 

Although  there  was  a  number  of  examples  found  of  a  carefully 
thought  out  policy  in  the  employment  of  Negro  women,  there  were 
complaints  oi  discrimination  made  by  these  women  too  serious  and 
frequent  to  be  ignored.  If  a  group  of  women  persistently  believes 
that  they  are  ^iven  the  lowest  wages,  the  most  disagreeable  work,  the 
poorest  material,  and  that  they  will  be  the  first  to  be  laid  off,  whether 
or  not  the  facts  fully  warrant  their  beliefs,  they  will  hardy  put  their 
best  efforts  into  the  improvement  of  their  work. 

SUMMARY    AND    CONCLUSION. 

From  the  foregoing  account  it  would  seem  that  the  Negro  women 
have  taken  an  increasingly  important  place  in  industrial  activities, 
largely  as  a  result  of  labor  shortage  during  the  war.  They  increased 
in  numbers  in  meat  packing,  i!n  the  tobacco  industry  and  power 
laundries,  and  entered  largely  into  textile  and  garment  factories, 
munitions  plants,  and  into  clerical  positions. 

The  conditions  of  the  places  of  work  varied  from  excellent  to  very 
poor,  appearing  to  be  similar  to  those  surrounding  white  women 
where  the  two  were  working  together.  The  Negro  women  workers 
need  special  attention  to  their  industrial  training  and  opportunities 
for  community  adjustment.  Where  employers  have  tried  to  do  this 
they  found  it  profitable.  Special  supervision,  especially  by  persons  of 
their  o\vq  race,  has  proven  effective. 

So  far  as  the  situation  may  be  regarded  as  peculiar  to  the  Negro 
woman  it  may  be  said  that  she  has  been  accepted,  in  the  main,  as  an 
experiment;  her  admittance  to  a  given  occupation  or  plant  has  been 
conditioned  upon  no  other  workers  being  available,  and  her  continu- 
ance frequently  hinged  upon  the  same.  She  was  usually  given  the 
less  desirable  jobs.  The  Negro  woman  worker  being  new  to  industry 
has  to  learn  its  lessons  of  routine  and  regularity;  the  attitude  both  of 
the  employer  and  of  other  workers  toward  Negro  women  workers  was 
one  of  uncertainty. 


CHAPTER   XX. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  ON  SCOPE  OF  DEPARTMENTAL 

AUTHORITY. 

From  time  to  time  the  Director  of  Negro  Economics  submitted 
reports  and  memoranda  to  the  Secretary  of  Labor  showing  the 
propaganda  which  it  was  attempted  to  estabhsh  among  Negro  wage 
earners.  Such  a  memorandum,  with  supporting  documents  and 
newspaper  chppings  and  exhibits,  were  submitted  to  the  Secretary 
about  a  month  before  the  series  of  riots  in  Chicago,  111.,  Omaha, 
Nebr.,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  other  places  in  the  summer  of  1919. 
In  this  memorandum  there  were  analyzed  the  three  schools  of 
opinion  and  activities  in  the  adjustment  of  Negro  life,  namely,  the 
very  radical  I.  W.  W.  group,  the  aggressive  abohtionist  group,  and 
the  conciliatory  group.  In  the  course  of  this  memorandum,  dated 
July  8,  1919,  there  occurred  the  following  statements: 

This  state  of  oi>inion  in  the  Negro  world  is  especially  important  with  reference 
to  the  labor  conditions  in  the  States  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Michigan, 
and  points  in  New  Jersey,  Indiana,  Nebraska,  Iowa,  and  Kansas.  To  this  terri- 
tory thousands  of  Negroes  have  migrated  and  are  still  moving.  They  are  coming 
into  employments  very  much  moie  highly  paid  than  those  they  left  in  the  South. 
They  ai"e  badly  housed  in  most  cases,  rather  coolly  received  by  the  white  workers 
and  populace,  segregated  into  "ghettos"  in  the  larger  industrial  centers.  They  are 
little  adjusted  to  the  highly  organized  northern  life  into  v.hich  they  haAe  come  fiom 
more  backward  communities  in  the  South.  The  white  workers  in  many  localities 
in  this  temtory  have  looked  with  apprehension  upon  their  settlement,  at  the  present 
time  there  being  considerable  friction  in  points  like  Toledo,  Ohio,  Chicago,  111.,  and 
Omaha,  Nebr.  The  occmTences  at  Philadelphia,  East  St.  Louis,  and  Chester,  Pa., 
within  the  last  two  years  are  only  indications  of  what  may  easily  take  place  in  other 
places.    The  returning  Negro  soldiers  are  also  going  in  large  numbers  to  these  centers. 

■x-      *      * 

Their  discontent,  growing  out  of  pre"\-ious  conditions  and  present  maladjustment 
in  theii-  new  sun-oimdings,  their  desire  for  American  rights,  their  resentment  against 
imjust  discrimination  and  other  practices  against  them  make  them  a  -very  ripe  field 
for  critical  de^■elopments  of  unrest,  ftiction,  and  distm'bances — dangers  not  only  to 
the  peace  of  labor  conditions  but  also  to  the  welfare  of  themselves,  the  community, 
and  the  Nation.  Suspicions  of  white  workers  at  the  present  time  in  several  places 
make  outbreaks  easily  possible.     *    *    * 

In  all  this  temtory  there  is  very  little,  if  any,  well-organized  and  well-directed 
machinery  for  assisting  Negi'oes  in  getting  into  touch  with  the  employment  offices 
and  in  getting  located  and  adjusted  in  their  new  environment.  Thousands  of  them 
are  coming  to  places  like  Chicago  and  Detroit  with  no  direction  whatever.  They 
\viU  listen  to  counsel  and  guidance  from  Federal  agents  as  fi'om  no  others. 

It  has  been  clearly  demonstrated  that  oiu*  supenisors,  working  under  the  United 
States  Employment  Service,  mth  the  development  of  Negro  workers'  advisory  com- 
mittees in  these  places,  can  have  the  most  far-reaching  effect  upon  these  workers. 

During  the  trying  days  of  the  Chicago  riots  the  Director  of  Negro 
Economics  went  to  Chicago  and  investigated  the  situation  on  the 
ground  and  on  August  27,  1919,  he  made  a  fuU  report  of  the  Chicago 
situation  to  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  outlining  the  underlying  labor 
causes  in  relation  to  white  employers,  white  workmen,  Negro  work- 
men, housing,  political,  and  other  conditions.     This  report  was  sup- 

134 


THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR.  135 

ported  with  a  mass  of  testimony,  newspaper  clippino;s,  and  other  data. 
The  director  also  visited  and  reported  upon  the  feeling  between  white 
and  colored  workers  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Detroit  and  Flint,  Mich., 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  several  other  places.  Testimony  and  evidence 
were  also  gathered  from  Sumter  and  Columbia,  S.  C,  Birmingham, 
Ala.,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  and  Montgomery,  Ala., 
and  from  this  testimony  the  director  said,  as  a  preface  to  the  following 
recommendations  (see  pp.  26-31): 

I  am  led  to  believe  that  the  mcial  tension  is  so  ^vide^pread  as  to  be,  in  fact,  a  matter 
of  national  concern  calling  for  some  attention  fi-om  the  National  Government. 

He  therefore  made  the  following  recommendations  which  were 
transmitted  by  the  Assistant  Secretary  of  Labor  and  approved  by  the 
Secretar\^  of  Labor  September  29,  1919: 

This  report  of  racial  friction,  together  with  my  pre^'ious  memorandum  on  racial 
unrest,  submitted  July  8,  1919,  shows  imperative  need  of  some  forward  steps.  When 
the  Secretary  of  Labor,  furthering  the  effectiveness  of  his  office,  created  the  position 
of  Dii-ector  of  Negi'o  Economics  there  was  latently  established  a  means  of  exchange  of 
information  and  of  cooperation  between  this  department  and  other  departments  of 
government,  both  State  and  Federal,  through  which  a  large.  National  constructive 
progi-am  for  bettering  the  li^dng  and  working  conditions  of  Negro  workers  and  im- 
proAdng  theii'  relations  with  white  workers  and  white  employers  may  be  outlined  and 
put  into  operation.  The  authority  of  the  Secretary  to  establish  "such  cooperation 
between  this  department  and  other  departments  is  given  in  the  organic  act  as  follows: 

"Said  Secretary  [of  Labor]  shall  also  have  authority  to  call  upon  other  departments 
of  the  Government  for  statistical  data  and  the  results  obtained  by  them;  and  said 
Secretary  of  Labor  may  collate,  arrange,  and  publish  such  statistical  information 
obtained  in  such  manner  as  to  him  may  seem  wise. ' '  (See.  4  of  the  organic  act  creating 
the  Department  of  Labor. ) 

Section  10  of  the  organic  act  dii-ected  the  Secretary  to  report  to  Congress  a  plan  for 
coordination  of  the  activities,  duties,  and  powers  of  his  office  ■nith  those  of  other  offices 
so  far  as  they  relate  to  labor.  January  9,  1917,  the  Secretary  of  Labor  reported  such 
a  plan  to  Congress  with  a  bill  to  establish  such  cooperation  and  coordination  of  activi- 
ties, powers,  and  duties.  (See  H.  Doc.  No.  1906,  64th  Cong.  2d  sess.)  Apparently 
this  bill  was  never  enacted  into  law. 

However,  the  Dii-ector  of  Negro  Economics  has  been  acting  under  the  authority  of 
the  Secretary  given  in  section  4  of  the  organic  act  quoted  aboA'e  so  far  as  cooperation 
could  be  obtained  with  other  departments  in  obtaining  and  furnishing  information 
for  the  ad\"ice  of  the  department.  In  addition  to  effective  cooperation  of  an  adAisory 
natiu-e  which  has  been  established  with  the  se^'eral  bureaus  and  di^'isions  of  the 
Department  of  Labor,  special  steps  for  cooperation  with  other  branches  of  the  Federal 
Government  and  with  seme  of  the  State  governments  have  been  successfully  under- 
taken. SpecirJ  mention  may  be  made  of  such  cooperative  effort  with  the  State 
Councils  of  National  Defense  during  the  war,  with  the  Ignited  States  Public  Health 
SerA-ice,  and  the  War  Risk  Insurance  Bm-eau  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and  with 
Col.  Woods's  offi.ce  (Special  Assistant  to  the  Secretary  of  War),  and  with  some  of  the 
demonstration  agents  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Based  upon  this  past  experience  and  the  authority  and  powers  of  the  Secretary  of 
Labor  for  calling  upon  other  branches  of  the  Government  for  information  affecting 
wage  earners,  I  respectfully  recommend : 

1.  That  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor,  by  \irtue  of  the  aforesaid  authority, 
either  through  the  Di^"ision  of  Negi'o  Economics,  or  othenvise,  as  seems  best,  take 
steps  through  the  executive  of  each  department,  or  chiefs  of  bureaus  or  commissions 
or  boards,  (a)  to  develop  cooperation  for  securing  statistical  data  on  labor  matters  from 
other  departments,  such  data  to  be  collated,  arranged,  and  published  with  reference 
to  Negro  workers  and  their  relations  to  white  workers  and  white  employers;  (6)  to 
work  out  plans  for  practical  cooperation  of  the  office  of  the  Secretary  of  Labor  with 
such  other  branches  of  the  executive  department  of  the  Government  as  deals  with 
questions  of  labor,  such  plans  to  be  similar  to  those  already  started  with  the  Public 
Health  Ser\-ice,  the  Biu-eau  of  War  Risk  Insurance  of  the  Treasury  Department,  and 
the  office  of  Col.  Woods,  of  the  War  Department. 

2.  That  the  Negio  Workers'  Advisory  Committees  already  established  be  utilized 
for  such  cooperative  service  with  other  departments  of  the  Government  for  such  steps 
as  may  be  effective  in  removing  the  conditions  now  causing  racial  unrest  and  friction, 


136  THE  NEGRO  AT  WORK  DURING  THE  WORLD  WAR. 

as  it  seems  to  me  that  some  of  the  causes  can  be  effectively  removed  by  cooperative 
efforts  of  the  agencies  of  the  Federal  Crovernment  along  the  following  lines:  (a)  Pub- 
licity and  educational  campaigns  on  the  training  of  Negro  workers,  both  shop  training 
and  uaskilled  training;  (6)  improvement  of  the  housing  of  Negro  workers;  (c)  methods 
of  encouraging  thrift;  (d)  improvement  of  farm  labor  conditions  and  methods  of  labor 
management;  (/)  educational  efficiency  campaigns  on  promptness,  regularity,  full- 
time  work,  etc.,  utilizing  Negro  newspapers,  associations,  agencies,  and  public 
speakers;  and  (</)  enlistment  of  active  help  of  white  employers  and  organizations  of 
white  workers. 

3.  That  through  the  cooperation  of  the  other  agencies  of  the  Federal  Government 
some  plan  for  the  investigation  of  Negro  affairs  and  race  relations  in  as  many  localities 
as  possible  be  undertaken  as  a  means  of  having  information  and  advice  to  improve 
conditions  and  race  relations. 

4.  That  steps  be  taken  with  appropriate  departments  of  State  governments  similar 
to  those  already  established  in  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 


APPENDIX  I. 
LABOR  AND  VICTORY. 

[An  address  prepared  and  sent  out  for  use  in  Fourth  of  July  celebrations,  191S.    About  2,000  copies  were 
distributed  and  it  is  estimated  that  it  was  heard  by  more  than  1,000,000  Negroes.] 

This  is  a  world  struggle  for  democracy,  and  win  it  we  must. 

How  can  we  win  it?  There  is  but  one  way.  Everyone^— man, 
woman,  and  child,  be  he  a  millionaire  or  a  day  laborer — must  do  his 
level  best  at  his  work,  wherever  he  may  be,  whether  on  the  farm,  at 
the  docks,  in  the  machine  shop,  in  the  mill,  at  the  White  House  in 
Washington,  in  the  kitchen,  in  the  home,  or  in  the  trenches.  Even 
wealthy  society  women  in  our  own  comitry  are  giving  up  their  luxu- 
ries, children  are  giving  up  their  candy,  that  the  children  of  Europe 
may  have  bread. 

To  win  this  war  our  soldiers  must  go  to  France  and  fight;  but  they 
can  not  fight  unless  they  have  guns  and  ammunition.  They  can  not 
fight  unless  they  have  clothing  and  shoes,  and  tents,  and  plenty  of 
food.  They  can  not  have  these  things  unless  there  are  ships  to  carry 
them  to  France.  We  must  have  ships  and  more  ships.  We  must 
build  steel  ships;  we  must  build  wooden  ships;  we  must  build  con- 
crete ships,  to  hurry  our  men  and  war  supplies  to  the  front.  Thought- 
ful men  and  women,  how  can  our  soldiers  have  clothing  and  shoes 
and  food  ^  How  can  we  have  ships  to  carry  our  boys  to  France  ? 
There  is  but  one  way.  Every  man,  and  every  child  and  woman,  must 
work  and  save,  to  furnish  food,  to  make  clothing  and  shoes,  to  make 
guns  and  ammunition,  and  to  build  ships.  And  do  not  forget  that 
any  person,  black  or  white,  who  does  not  work  hard,  who  lags  in  any 
way,  who  fails  to  buy  a  Liberty  bond,  or  a  War  Savings  stamp  if  he 
can,  is  against  his  country  and  is,  therefore,  our  bitter  enemy. 

I  am  happy  to  say  that  the  majority  of  our  men  and  women  are 
working  like  all  other  good  Americans  to  make  their  labor  win  the 
war.  Only  a  few  weeks  ago  the  world's  record  for  driving  rivets  in 
budding  steel  ships  was  broken  by  Charles  Kjiight,  a  Negro  workman 
at  Sparrows  Point,  Md.  In  one  nine-hour  day  he  drove  4,875  three- 
quarter  inch  rivets  in  the  hull  of  a  steel  ship.  The  newspapei-s  of  the 
country  have  lauded  him  for  his  work.  The  British  Government  sent 
him  a  prize  of  $125.  Again,  many  of  our  men  and  women  are  making 
records  as  workers  in  the  steel  mills,  in  the  coal  mines,  on  the  rail- 
roads, and  on  the  farms.  Our  thoughtful,  interested  cooks  and  other 
helpers  in  the  kitchen  are  really  doing  service  at  the  front,  by  saving 
aU  the  food  they  can.  The  newspapers  and  journals  of  the  country, 
'managed  and  edited  by  thoughtful  men  and  women,  are  creating 
sentiment  that  will  do  much  toward  winning  the  war.  For  instance, 
the  Albany  (Ga.)  Herald,  a  newspaper  edited  by  Southern  white  men, 
advised  and  suggested  to  ladies  of  the  city  who  offered  to  make  and 
present  to  the  city  a  service  flag,  that  a  service  flag  for  Albany  would 
not  be  complete  unless  there  were  placed  in  its  field  a  star  not*  only 
for  every  white  soldier  or  sailor  who  has  enlisted  from  Albany  but  a 

137 


138  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURIXG   THE   WORLD   WAR. 

star  for  every  Albanian,  white  or  black.  The  first  emploj^ee  of  this 
newspaper  to  join  the  National  Army  was  a  Negro,  and  the  first  star 
on  the  Herald's  service  fia»  is  his  star. 

Negroes  are  being  asked  in  every  city,  town,  and  rural  district  to 
join  in 'this  work  of  winning  this  war.  We,  like  other  folk,  are  hav- 
ing an  unusual  chance  to  work  and  save  our  country.  Let  every  one 
of  us  be  wide  awake,  and  make  the  most  of  this  opportunity.  Let 
him  bear  in  mind  that  every  time  he  makes  good  on  his  job,  he  helps 
his  country  and  the  race.  Let  him  also  remember  that  every  time 
a  Negro  falls  down  on  his  job,  he  pulls  dowTi  his  country  and  the 
entire  race,  and  thus  makes  winning  the  war  less  possible. 

A  few  months  ago  a  friend  printed  a  card  to  help  the  Negro 
workmen  in  factories  and  shops.     The  card  read  something  like  this: 

WHY    HE    FAILED. 

He  did  not  report  on  time; 

He  watched  the  clock; 

He  loafed  when  the  boss  was  not  looking; 

He  stayed  out  with  the  boys  all  night; 

He  said,  "I  forgot;" 

He  did  not  show  up  on  Monday,  and 

He  wanted  a  holiday  every  Saturday; 

He  lied  when  asked  for  the  truth. 

There  is  still  another  thing  we  ought  to  think  about,  if  we  are  to 
make  the  most  of  these  opportunities  for  saving  our  country.  These 
are  times  of  great  demands  and  great  prosperity.  Wages  are  high. 
Everybody  who  will  work  can  get  work.  Many  who  are  working 
now  are  making  more  money  than  they  ever  made.  Many  of  our 
families  who  have  men  in  the  Army  are  now  getting  from  Uncle  Sam 
more  cash  money  than  they  ever  had  at  any  one  time  before.  What 
then  is  the  wise  thing  for  us  to  do  now  (  In  the  words  of  the  proverbs 
of  Solomon:  "Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard;  consider  her  ways  and 
be  wise.  She  layeth  up  her  store  in  summer."  Now  is  the  time  to 
work  every  day  we  can.  Now  is  the  time  to  work  every  hour  we 
can.  Now  is  the  time  to  make  and  save  every  dollar  we  can.  Now 
is  the  time  to  buy  every  Liberty  bond  we  can,  and  every  War  Savings 
stamp  that  we  can,  in  order  that  our  country  may  have  that  liberty 
for  which  she  is  fighting.  The  Negro  has  fought  like  a  man  in  the 
battles  from  Bunker  Hill  to  San  Juan  Hill.  He  has  died  to  keep  the 
American  colors  flying.  Those  left  behind  did  their  duty  like  soldiers, 
and  to-day  there  are  hundreds  of  black  boys  at  the  front  in  France 
laying  down  their  very  lives  for  their  country,  for  you  and  for  me. 
Will  you,  because  of  your  refusal  to  work  six  da^^s  in  every  week,  or 
because  of  your  failure  to  save  as  much  food  as  you  can,  or  because 
of  any  lack  of  interest  whatever  on  your  part,  have  to  answer  to  our 
boys  on  their  return,  maimed  in  battle  or  even  to  men  who  never 
return?  We  are  our  brothers'  keepers;  we,  too,  are  soldiers  on  duty, 
and  in  our  hands  rests  the  destiny  of  our  country  and  our  fellow  men  • 
America  needs,  expects,  and  asks  every  man  to  do  his  duty. 


APPENDIX  II. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  NEGRO  WORKERS'  ADVISORY  COM- 
MITTEE OF  NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Article  I.  Name. — The  name  of  this  committee  shall  be  the 
Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of  North  Carolina. 

Art.  II.  Purpose. — The  purpose  of  tills  committee  shall  be  to 
stud}^,  plan,  and  advise  in  a  cooperative  spirit  and  manner  with 
employees  of  Negro  labor,  with  Negro  workers,  and  with  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  in  securing  from  Negro  laborers  greater 
production  in  industry  and  agi'icultm'e  for  winning  the  war  tkrough 
increasing  regularity,  application,  and  efficiency,  tlu'ough  increasing 
the  morale  of  Negro  workers,  and  through  improving  their  general 
conditions.  ' 

Art.  III.  Memhe7'sTiip. — The  membership  of  this  committee  shall 
be  composed  of  not  more  than  30  persons,  colored  men  and  women  of 
North  Carolina.  At  least  five  members  shall  be  women.  The 
chairman  of  the  North  Carolina  Council  of  Defense,  the  Federal 
director  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service,  and  the  State 
agent  of  rural  schools  shall  be  cooperating  members.  The  governor 
shall  be  honorary  chah'man. 

Art.  IV.  Executive  hoard. — There  shall  be  an  executive  board  of 
nine  chosen  from  the  general  committee.  At  least  two  members  of 
the  executive  board  shall  be  women. 

Art.  V.  Appointments. — The  members  of  the  committee  and  of 
the  executive  board  shall,  upon  recommendation,  be  appointed  by 
the  Secretary  of  Labor,  who  shall  also  designate  the  chairman  and 
the  secretary.  These  officers  shall  serve  for  both  the  advisory  com- 
mittee and  the  executive  board. 

L^pon  the  first  appointment  one-tMrd  of  the  members  of  both  the 
advisory  committee  and  its  executive  board  shall  be  appointed  to 
serve  until  January  1,  1919;  one-thu'd  to  serve  until  June  1,  1919; 
and  one-thii'd  to  serve  until  January  1,  1920,  Thereafter  one-third 
of  the  membersliip  of  the  committee  and  its  executive  board  shall  be 
appointed  every  six  months  to  serve  for  a  term  of  six  months.  The 
chairman  and  secretary  shall  serve  for  periods  of  six  months  each, 
subject  to  reappointment. 

Art,  VI.  Meetings. — Section  1,  The  advisory  conunittee  shall 
meet  at  least  once  every  six  months  and  at  such  other  times  as  the 
executive  board  may  decide.  Fifteen  members  shall  constitute  a 
C{uorum. 

Sec.  2.  The  executive  board  shall  meet  at  least  once  every  other 
month  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  chairman  and  secretary  shall 
decide,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  board.  Six  members  shall 
constitute  a  quorum.  The  chairman  shall  be  required  to  call  the 
meeting  of  the  executive  board  upon  the  ^n•itten  request  of  five 
members. 

139 


140  THE   NEGRO   AT   WORK   DURING   THE   WORLD  WAR. 

Sec,  3.  The  meeting  place  of  the  advisory  committee  and  the 
executive  board  shall  be  the  State  Capitol,  unless  otherwise  ordered 
by  the  executive  board  and  approved  l)y  the  Department  of  Labor. 

Art.  VII.  By-laws. — ^The  executive  board  shall  make  such  by- 
laws and  rules  for  the  conduct  of  business  as  seem  best,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  advisory  committee,  and  the  Department  of 
Labor. 

Art.  VIII.  Powers  of  the  executive  hoard.- — Tlie  executive  board 
shall  transact  all  business,  make  plans,  enter  into  agreements,  and 
form  such  other  acts  as  may  be  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  purpose 
of  this  committee.  All  such  transactions,  plans,  agreements,  or  acts 
shall  be  subject  to  revision  by  the  advisory  committee  and  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor,  through  its  duly  authorized  repre- 
sentatives. 

Art.  IX.  County  committees. — The  executive  board  shall  nominate 
for  each  county  oi  the  State  having  in  their  judgment  a  sufficient 
Negro  population  a  county  Negro  workers'  advisory  committee  of 
not  more  than  11  pei"sons.  Tliese  persons  so  nominated  are  to  be 
appointed  by  the  Department  of  Labor  upon  recommendation  of  the 
county  council  of  defense  of  their  respective  counties.  The  chair- 
men of  the  respective  county  councils  of  defense  and  such  other 
white  citizens  as  may  be  selected  by  the  Department  of  Labor  shall 
be  cooperating  members  of  the  county  advisory  committee. 

Art.  X.  District  committees. — The  county  advisory  committee 
may  be  authorized  by  the  State  committee  to  form  district  advisory 
committees  for  localities  in  their  respective  counties  where  the  Negro 
population  and  local  labor  problems  justify  such  district  advisory 
committees. 

Art.  XI.  Finances. — Neither' this  organization,  its  executive  board, 
or  the  county  and  district  advisory  committees,  or  any  of  their  execu- 
tive boards  shall  have  power  or  authority  to  incur  expenses  or  make 
any  financial  agreements  or  contracts  which  shall  in  any  way  obli- 
gate the  State  of  North  Carolina  or  the  United  States  Department 
of  Labor.  No  debts  shall  be  incurred  by  this  committee  or  its  execu- 
tive board  or  by  any  county  or  district  committees  or  their  respective 
executive  boards  unless  previously  provided  for. 

Art.  XII.  Amendments. — Amendments  may  be  made  to  this 
constitution  by  two-tliirds  vote  at  a  regular  and  duly  called  meeting 
of  this  committee,  provided  such  amendment  shall  have  been  pre- 
viously approved  by  the  governor  of  North  Carolina  and  the  Umted 
States  Department  of  Labor. 


APPENDIX  III. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  NEGRO  WORKERS'  ADVISORY  COM- 
MITTEE OF  OHIO. 

Article  I.  Name. — The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be  the 
Negro  Workers'  Advisory  Committee  of  Ohio. 

Art.  II.  Purpose. — The  purpose  of  this  committee  shall  be  to 
study,  plan,  and  advise  in  a  cooperative  spirit  and  manner  with 
employers  of  labor,  with  Negro  workers,  and  with  the  United  States 
Department  of  Labor  for  the  securing  of  additional  opportunity  for 
enaployment  to  Negro  labor  and  greater  production  in  industry  and 
agriculture  for  winning  the  war  tlirough  increasing  regularity,  appli- 
cation, and  efficiency,  through  improving  the  morale  of  Negro  work- 
ers, and  through  improving  their  general  condition. 

Art.  III.  Membership. — ^The  membership  of  this  organization  shall 
be  composed  of  not  more  than  30  persons,  men  and  women,  of  Ohio. 
At  least  5  members  shall  be  women.  The  chairmen  of  the  council 
of  defense,  the  Federal  director  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service,  the  Federal  director  of  the  Public  Service  Reserve  shall  be 
ex  officio  members.  The  governor  of  Ohio  shall  be  honorary  chair- 
man. 

Art.  IV.  Executive  hoard. — There  shall  be  an  executive  board  of 
nine  chosen  from  the  general  committee.  At  least  two  members  of 
the  executive  board  shall  be  women. 

Art.  V.  Appointments. — The  members  of  the  conmiittee  and  of 
the  executive  board  shall,  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  executive 
board  and  the  indorsement  of  the  Federal  State  director  of  the 
United  States  Employment  Service  for  Ohio,  be  appointed  by  the 
Secretary  of  Labor,  who  shall  also  designate  the  cnaii-man  and  the 
secretary.  These  officers  shall  serve  for  both  the  advisory  com- 
mittee and  the  executive  board.  Thereafter,  one-third  of  the  mem- 
bership of  the  committee  and  its  executive  board  shall  be  appointed 
every  six  months  to  serve  for  a  term  of  18  months.  LTpon  tne  first 
appointment  one-third  of  the  members  of  both  the  advisory  com- 
mittee and  its  executive  board  shall  be  appointed  to  serve  until 
January  1,  1919.  The  chairman  and  secretary  shall  serve  for  periods 
of  six  months  each,  subject  to  reappointment.  Membership  on  the 
committee  may  be  vacated  on  recommendation  by  a  vote  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  committee. 

Art.  VI.  Meetings. — Section  1 .  The  State  advisory  conlmittee  shall 
meet  at  least  once  every  six  months  and  at  such  other  times  as  the 
executive  board  may  dfecide.  Fifteen  members  shall  constitute  a 
quorum. 

Sec.  2.  The  executive  board  shall  meet  at  least  once  in  every  two 
months,  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  chairman  and  secretary  shall 
decide,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  board.     Five  members  shall 

141 


142  THE   NEGRO   AT  WORK   DURING  THE   WORLD  WAR. 

constitute  a  quorum.  The  chairman  shall  he  required  to  call  the 
meetings  of  the  executive  board  upon  the  wTitten  request  of  five 
members  of  tlie  board. 

Sec.  3.  The  meeting  place  of  the  advisory  committee  and  the  exec- 
utive board  shall  be  the  State  capitol,  unless  otherwise  ordered  by 
the  executive  board  and  approved  by  the  Department  of  Labor. 

Aet.  VII.  By-laws. — The  executive  board  shall  make  such  by-laws 
and  rules  for  the  conduct  of  its  business  as  seem  best,  not  incon- 
sistent with  this  constitution. 

Art.  VIII.  Powers  of  the  executive  hoard.— The  executive  board 
shall  transact  all  business,  make  plans,  enter  into  agreements,  and 
perform  such  other  acts  as  may  be  necessary  for  carrying  out  the  pur- 
pose of  this  committee.  All  such  transactions,  plans,  agreements, 
or  acts  shall  be  subject  to  revision  by  the  advisory  committee  and 
the  United  States  Department  of  Labor,  through  its  duly  authorized 
representatives. 

Art.  IX.  County  committees. — ^The  executive  board  shall  nominate 
for  each  of  the  counties  in  the  State,  having  in  their  judgment  a 
sufficient  Negro  population,  a  county  Negro  workers'  advisory  com- 
mittee of  not  more  than  11  persons.  These  persons  so  nominated 
are  to  be  appointed  by  the  Department  of  Labor  upon  recommenda- 
tion of  Federal  State  Director  of  the  United  States  Employment 
Service  for  Ohio. 

Art.  X.  Community  committees. — The  State  advisory  committee 
may  form  community  advisory  committees  for  localities  in .  their 
respective  communities  where  the  Negro  population  and  local  labor 
problems  justify  such  community  advisory  committees.  The  com- 
munity advisory  committees  shall  cooperate  in  every  practical  and 
honorable  way  with  the  county  labor  boards. 

Art.  XL  Finances. — Neither  this  organization  nor  its  executive 
board,  nor  any  county  or  community  advisory  coramittee,  nor  any  of 
their  executive  boards  shall  have  power  or  authority  to  incur  ex- 
penses or  make  any  financial  agreements  or  contracts  which  shall  in 
anyway  obligate  the  State  of  Ohio  or  the  United  States  Department 
of  Labor.  No  debts  shall  be  incurred  by  this  committee  or  its  execu- 
tive board  or  by  any  county  or  community  committee  or  their 
respective  executive  boards  unless  previously  authorized. 

Art.  XII.  Amendments. — Amendments  may  be  made  to  this  con- 
stitution by  a  two-thirds  vote  at  a  regular  and  duly  called  meeting  of 
the  general  committee,  provided  such  amendment  shall  have  been 
previously  approved  by  the  executive  board  and  the  United  States 
Department  of  Labor. 


APPENDIX  IV. 

CONSTITUTION  FOR  THE  NEGRO  WAR  WORK  COMMITTEE 

OF  KENTUCKY. 

Article  I.  Name. — The  name  of  this  committee  shall  be  the  Negro 
War  Work  Committee  of  Kentucky. 

Art.  II.  Purpose. — The  purpose  of  this  organization  shaU  be  to 
study,  plan,  and  advise  in  a  cooperative  spirit  and  manner  with 
employei-s  of  Negro  labor,  with  Negro  workers,  and  with  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor  in  securing  from  Negro  laborers  greater 
production  in  industry  and  agriculture  for  winning  the  war  through 
securing  wide  opportunity  for  work,  through  increasing  the  morale 
of  Negro  workers,  and  through  improving  their  general  efficiency 
and  condition;  to  promote  the  production  and  conservation  of  food  in 
conformity  with  the  plans  of  the  Food  Administration  and  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture;  to  promote  the  work  of  the  Red  Cross,  Liberty 
loans,  and  other  war  activities. 

Art.  III.  Membership. — The  membership  of  this  committee  shall 
be  composed  of  not  more  than  30  persons,  colored  men  and  women  of 
Kentucky.  At  least  six  members  shall  be  women.  The  committee 
on  Negro  organization  of  the  Kentucky  Council  of  Defense,  the 
Federal  director  of  the  United  States  Employment  Service,  the 
Federal  director  of  the  Public  Service  Reserve,  the  Federal  food 
administrator  of  Kentucky,  the  director  of  farm  extension  in  Ken- 
tuck}^,  the  chairman  of  the  American  Red  Cross,  the  executive 
secretary  of  the  War  Camp  Community  Service,  and  representatives 
of  other  war  organizations  shall  be  cooperating  members.  The 
governor  of  Kentucky  shall  be  honorary  chairman. 

Art.  IV.  Executive  hoard. — There  shall  be  an  executive  board  of 
nine,  chosen  from  the  general  committee.  At  least  three  members  of 
the  executive  board  shall  be  women. 

Art.\V.  Appointments. — The  members  of  this  committee  and  of 
the  executive  board  shall  be  appointed  as  follows:  One-third  of  the 
members  of  general  committee  and  of  the  executive  board  shall  bo 
appointed  by  the  Department  of  Labor;  one- third  by  the  Extension 
Bureau,  Department  of  Agriculture;  and  one-third  by  the  Food 
Administration.  These  members  shall  be  designated  also  as  the 
committee  of  the  Kentucky  Council  of  Defense  for  the  war  work 
among  the  colored  people.  The  officers  shall  be  a  chairman  and  a 
secretary,  wtk)  will  be  elected  by  the  executive  board.  They  shall 
serve  for  both  the  general  committee  and  the  executive  board. 

Under  the  first  appointment  one-third  of  the  members  of  both  the 
advisory  committee  and  its  executive  board  shall  be  appointed  to 
serve  until  January  1,  1919;  one-third  to  serve  until  July  1,  1919: 
and  one-third  to  serve  until  January  1,  1920,  Thereafter,  one-third 
of  the  membership  of  the  committee  and  its  executive  board  shall  be 
appointed  every  6  months  to  serve  for  a  term  of  18  months.  The 
chairman  and  secretary  shall  serve  for  periods  of  six  months  each, 
subject  to  reappointment.  There  shall  be  a  treasurer  appointed  by 
the  executive  board.  He  shaU  be  under  bond  for  the  faithful  per- 
formance of  such  duties  as  the  executive  board  may  designate. 

143 


144  THE   XEGKO   AT  WORK   DUKIZSTG  THE   WORLD  WAE. 

Art.  VI.  Meetings. — Section  1.  The  general  committee  shall  meet 
at  least  once  every  six  months  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  executive 
board  may  decide.     Fifteen  members  shall  constitute  a  quorum. 

Sec.  2.  The  executive  board  shall  meet  at  least  once  every  other 
month  and  at  such  other  times  as  the  chairman  and  secretary  shall 
decide,  imless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  board.  Five  members  shall 
constitute  a  quorum.  The  chairman  shall  be  required  to  call  the 
meeting  of  the  executive  board  upon  the  written  request  of  five 
members  of  the  advisory  committee  of  the  board  or  of  both.  The 
calling  «f  the  meetings  of  both  the  general  committee  and  of  the  exec- 
utive board  shall  first  have  the  approval  of  the  Negro  organization 
committee  of  the  council  of  defense. 

Sec.  3.  The  meeting  place  of  the  general  committee  and  the  execu- 
tive board  shall  be  Louisville  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  exec- 
utive board  and  approved  by  the  council  of  defense. 

Art.  VII.  Bi/-laivs. ^The  executive  board  shall  make  such  by- 
laws and  rules  for  the  conduct  of  business  as  may  seem  best  and  in 
conformity  with  this  constitution. 

Art.  VIII.  Powers  of  the  executive  hoard. — The  executive  board 
shall  transact  aU  business,  make  plans,  enter  into  agreements,  and 
perform  such  other  acts  as  may  be  necessary  for  carrying  out  the 
purpose  of  this  committee.  All  such  transactions,  plans,  agreements, 
or  acts  shall  be  subject  to  revision  by  the  general  committee,  the 
departments  of  the  Federal  Government  involved,  and  the  Kentucky 
Council  of  Defense. 

Art.  IX.  County  committees. — The  executive  board  shaU  nominate 
for  each  county  of  the  State  having  in  their  judgment  a  sufficient 
Negro  population  a  county  Negro  war-work  committee  of  not  more 
than  nine  persons.  The  persons  so  nominated  shall  be  appointed  by 
the  Departments  of  Labor  and  Agriculture,  the  Food  Admmistration, 
and  the  council  of  defense  in  the  same  manner  as  the  wState  committee 
and  its  executive  board. 

Art.  X.  Community  committees. — The  county  war-work  committee 
may  be  authorized  by  the  State  committee  to  form  community  war- 
work  committees  for  locaUties  in  their  respective  counties  where  the 
Negro  population  and  local  war-work  problems  justify  such  community 
committees.  This  committee  and  its  executive  board  and  the  county 
and  community  committees  shall  cooperate  with  the  community 
labor  boards  of  the  Department  of  Labor. 

Art.  XL  Finances. — Neither  this  organization,  its  executive 
board,  nor  the  county  or  community  war- work  committees,  nor  any 
of  their  executive  boards  shall  have  power  or  authority  to  incur 
expenses  or  make  any  financial  agreements  or  contracts  which  shall 
in  any  way  obligate  the  State  of  Kentucky  or  the  Lnited  States 
Government.  No  debts  shall  be  incurred  by  this  committee  or  its 
executive  board  or  any  county  or  communit}^  committees  or  their 
respective  executive  boards  unless  previously  provided  for. 

Art.  XIL  Amendments. — ^Amendments  may  be  made  to  this 
constitution  by  two-thirds  vote  at  a  regular  and  duly  called  meeting 
of  this  committee,  provided  each  amendment  shall  have  been  pre- 
viously approved  by  the  executive  board  and  the  L^nited  States 
departments  herein  named  and  by  the  Kentucky  Council  of  Defense. 

o 


UNIVERSITY  OF  N  C  AT  CHAPEL 


HILL 


